Children's risk and benefit behaviours on social networking sites
Introduction
Having known only a world embedded within a fast-paced, connective reality, children of primary school age (7–12 years) are engaging with the internet (Rosen, 2010). In particular, children are recognising and utilising social networking sites (SNS; Ofcom, 2019). However, little remains known about children's online behaviour and to what extent this is associated with risky or beneficial outcomes. The average age restriction for SNS is 13 years old. Despite this, children are engaging with SNS; in the United Kingdom 21% of 8- to 11-year-olds and 4% of 5- to 7-year-olds own an SNS profile (Ofcom, 2019).
Exploration of SNS behaviours and their association with the risks and benefits has predominantly been explored with adult and adolescent samples. Yet, it is easy for children to bypass age restrictions and create an account with a false age (Livingstone & Brake, 2010; Livingstone, Ólafsson & Staksrud, 2011). Currently, an understanding of children's SNS behaviours and how these may predict risky and beneficial outcomes is limited.
Adolescents (aged 13–24 years; Sawyer et al., 2018) are more likely to disclose personal information online than adults (Christofides et al., 2011). Considering children have even less social experience to understand social appropriateness and audience interpretation of disclosures, they may be even more likely to share inappropriate information online (over-disclose; Christofides et al., 2011). Online disinhibition, the perceived ease of online communication as a result of controllability of online interactions (Suler, 2004), may facilitate self-disclosure, which may increase the risk of over-disclosure (Schouten, Valkenburg & Peter, 2007); for example, adolescents are more likely to disclose about illegal activities online than within a face-to-face conversation (Peluchette & Karl, 2008). Particularly, for those with advanced digital literacy skills, online disinhibition may be elevated by greater control of online interactions (Gradinger et al., 2015; Kim & Faith, 2020).
As well as self-disclosure, SNS provide an opportunity to manage impressions via selfpresentation behaviours: the strategic manipulation of other's perceptions about the self (Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014). During middle childhood, children begin to develop an understanding and recognition of self-presentation behaviours (Watling & Banerjee, 2007a; 2007b; Bennett & Yeeles, 1990). SNS use provides the time and space to craft self-presentation of the online self (Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014), especially for those with digital literacy skills (Besmer & Richter Lipford, 2010). Children may therefore seize the opportunity to explore self-presentation behaviours online.
Experiences of cyberbullying are a risk of engaging with SNS (Hamm et al., 2015). Cyberbullying consists of repeated hostile or aggressive behaviours through the medium of digital media which is intended to harm the victim (Tokunaga, 2010).
Engaging in perpetration behaviours (cyberbullying others) may be facilitated by online disinhibition (Wright et al., 2019) as the risk of being identified and dealing with a consequence is limited (Comer et al., 2016; Hinduja & Patchin, 2007; Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014). For instance, self-presentation behaviours may be utilised to present the false self to deceive (e.g., an anonymous profile). Further, increased time spent online may facilitate perpetration, especially for the digitally literate cyberbully (Park et al., 2014). Importantly, previous research has identified that engaging in perpetration is risky for the cyberbully; for example, being a bully is associated with reduced friendships (Sigurdson et al., 2015).
Equally, engaging with SNS increase one's likelihood of becoming victimised through the enhanced visibility to cyberbullies (Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). Public self-disclosure (i.e., to anyone within a network; Venkatanathan et al., 2014) can be perceived negatively by adult online audiences (Bazarova, 2012). Further, over-disclosing privately to a selected friend or small group of friends is still risky, as the child may be victimised if they misjudge the trustworthiness of the recipient (e.g., the recipient screenshotting and sharing; Ashktorab & Vitak, 2016; Bazarova, 2012; Jaynes, 2019, pp. 1–16). Amongst adolescents, negative responses to overdisclosure predict friendship difficulties, such as arguments and social exclusion, which can develop into experiencing victimisation (boyd & Ellison, 2007; Hinduja & Patchin, 2007; Molavi et al., 2018; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). Additionally, utilising selfpresentation behaviours to present the ideal self or false self to explore or compare/impress may also enhance visibility to cyberbullies, particularly if the disparity is identifiable (e.g., photoshop fails; Dredge et al., 2014).
SNS allows the user time and space to self-disclose more strategically (Krämer et al., 2014; Schouten, Valkenburg & Peter, 2007; Zhang & Jung, 2021), which may ease communication (Holloway, Green, & Livingstone, 2013; Lambert, 2016; Schouten, Valkenburg & Peter, 2007) and facilitate the maintenance of pre-existing friendships (bonding social capital; Putnam, 1993). In fact, Peter, Valkenburg and Schouten (2005) identified that early online chat rooms provided adolescents with the opportunity to practice social skills required for maintaining friendships (bonding social capital); further supported by Antheunis et al. (2016). SNS use could therefore provide children with a unique opportunity to bond social capital.
Furthermore, the time and space SNS affords may facilitate the use of impression management via self-presentation behaviours (Schouten, Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). Online, children can explore different self-presentation behaviours with far more creative freedom (Holloway, Green & Livingstone, 2013). For example, Yang and Brown (2016) found that presenting the real self predicted positive feedback; this may develop into feelings of friendship intimacy, thus bonding social capital (Peter, Valkenburg & Schouten, 2005; Valkenburg & Peter, 2011).
SNS also presents opportunities for bridging social capital (i.e., forming new friendships via a mutual friend; Schouten, Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). Importantly, in order to bridge social capital, one must introduce the self and share their interests, thus an element of self-disclosure is required (Cao et al., 2015; Cozby, 1973; Liu & Brown, 2014). There are an abundance of social groups and communities on SNS (Johnson & Ambrose, 2006; Mesch & Talmud, 2007; Wright & Li, 2011). Joining groups and disclosing within them can foster new friendships and hobbies or interests (Ito, 2008; Quinn & Oldmeadow, 2013; Reich, 2017).
Online self-presentation behaviours may also be useful for bridging social capital. The ability to spend time curating the online self may ease the process of initiating a new friendship, which can often be awkward offline (Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014); this could be especially beneficial for children who lack social experience (Livingstone & Helsper, 2007a; Livingstone & Helsper, 2007b).
Certainly, when we consider children's social inexperience, practicing introducing the self, presenting the self, and forming new friendships online (bridging social capital) could be particularly effective for children's social skill development (Abbas & Mesch, 2018; Livingstone & Helsper, 2007b).
Online behaviours may also predict children's self-esteem levels. Within a longitudinal study, with older adolescents, Steinfield, Ellison and Lampe (2008) found that those with low self-esteem experienced increased self-esteem over time when using Facebook. Those already low in self-esteem may find SNS use beneficial for expanding their social network by having the time and space to self-disclose with confidence (Błachnio et al., 2016; Ellison, Steinfield & Lampe, 2007; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Johnston et al., 2013). Further, Valkenburg, Peter and Schouten (2006) found that 10- to 18-year-olds self-esteem increased over time after receiving positive feedback via SNS. For those utilising self-presentation behaviours online, receiving positive feedback could therefore be beneficial upon self-esteem. When we consider the importance of developing self-esteem during childhood (Dupasquier et al., 2020; Iranmanesh et al., 2019; Robins & Trzesniewski, 2005), SNS use may provide a beneficial opportunity for younger children.
On the other hand, SNS use may be a detriment to self-esteem. Online over-disclosure behaviours may receive negative feedback from the audience (Bazarova et al., 2014), which can reduce self-esteem (Dupasquier et al., 2020; Rui & Stefanone, 2013a; Rui & Stefanone, 2013b). Further, utilising self-presentation behaviours, particularly the ideal or false selves (Grieve et al., 2020), may negatively impact self-esteem as the user is aware of the disparity between the presented self and the real self (Kuppens & Van Mechelen, 2007; Meeus et al., 2019; Michikyan et al., 2014). Considering children's lesser social experience, in comparison to that of adolescents and adults (Christofides, Muise & Desmarais, 2011), they may be at risk of engaging in these behaviours and experiencing impaired self-esteem.
Importantly, impacts upon self-esteem during childhood can have a long-term impact upon mental health (Kwan et al., 2020; Pietig, 1977). Yet, an understanding of children's, under 13 years, SNS behaviours and to what extent they impact self-esteem remains limited. Understanding whether children's SNS behaviours are associated with self-esteem outcomes is important for supporting children's development within a digital age.
As illustrated above, online self-disclosure and self-presentation behaviours via SNS use are associated with both risky and beneficial outcomes for adolescents and adults. Potential risks include engagement with cyberbullying perpetration, experiences of victimisation and reduced self-esteem. Potential benefits include bonding and bridging social capital and enhanced selfesteem. In this study we explore the extent to which children's (7-to-12 years old) SNS behaviours (self-disclosure and self-presentation) predict previously identified risk and benefit outcomes amongst adolescents (cyberbullying perpetration and victimisation, social capital bonding and bridging, and self-esteem). We also consider the access and individual predictors of children's SNS access, location of access, frequency of access, age and gender.
Based upon findings within adult and adolescent literature, it is expected that:
- 1.
Greater use of self-disclosure behaviours will positively predict cyberbullying perpetration and cyberbullying victimisation, and bonding and bridging social capital, but will negatively predict self-esteem;
- 2.
Greater self-presentation behaviours will positively predict cyberbullying perpetration and cyberbullying victimisation, bonding and bridging social capital and self-esteem.
Focusing upon children, under 13 years, will provide a stronger understanding of children's SNS behaviours and to what extent these may predict risky and beneficial outcomes.
Section snippets
Participants
Participants (N = 901) were recruited to participate in an online survey from seven schools across the North of England (Sheffield and Stoke-On-Trent) and South of England (Norwich, Essex and Surrey). Due to the aim of this study focusing upon children's SNS use, participants who neither owned any SNS nor accessed SNS via a friend or family member were removed from analyses. Further, participants with a completion rate less than 80% and participants who had not completed the outcome variables
Descriptive information
In total, 280 children identified owning an SNS account: 40% had SnapChat; 37% had Instagram; 7% had Facebook; 42% specified another platform (e.g., Whatsapp, Music.ly, Roblox, Minecraft). Across these participants, 445 accounts were owned; 114 children owned more than one account; 70 children accessed SNS via another individual: 56% via a family member; 47% via their mother; 25% via their father. Tablets were the most owned digital device (80%) and the majority of these had internet connection
Discussion
This study contributes to a limited amount of research exploring children's (7- to 12-year-olds) SNS behaviours and to what extent they predict outcomes that are considered risks and benefits. Online self-disclosure behaviours predicted positive outcomes for greater bridging social capital, but also negative outcomes including a greater likelihood to engage in cyberbullying perpetration behaviours and experience victimisation. Self-presentation behaviours positively predicted both bonding and
Author contribution
Dr Beatrice Hayes: conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing, project administration, funding acquisition. Dr Alana James: conceptualization, methodology, validation, writing – review & editing, supervision, funding acquisition. Professor Ravinder Barn: validation, writing – review & editing, supervision, funding acquisition. Professor Dawn Watling: conceptualization, methodology,
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Royal Holloway, University of London and the Leverhulme Magna Carta Doctoral Scholarship.
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