Elsevier

Critical Care Clinics

Volume 30, Issue 1, January 2014, Pages 93-117
Critical Care Clinics

Thoracic Ultrasonography

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2013.08.002Get rights and content

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Key points

  • Thoracic ultrasonography (US) provides a better and faster diagnostic alternative to traditional radiographic techniques in the dyspneic and critically ill patient.

  • Traditional resources on bedside US emphasize that the lung is not an organ amenable to US evaluation. Over the last few years, this claim has been shown to be false, and many pulmonary applications have become widely prevalent in clinical use.

  • US can be used in the evaluation for pneumothorax, pleural effusions, pulmonary edema,

Introduction: thoracic ultrasonography - its history and evolution

In the past, ultrasonography (US) was a relatively neglected aspect of bedside emergency ultrasound (EUS). Due to increased resistance in the passage of sound waves through the air-filled lung, image acquisition and interpretation can be challenging. However, sound waves can easily travel through fluid-filled areas of the chest. Thus, US is more sensitive than chest radiographs for detecting disease such as pleural effusions.1 In addition, US guidance has been found to offer a dramatic decrease

Case presentation

A 64-year-old woman with a history of hypertension, congestive heart failure (CHF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and intravenous drug use (IVDU) presented to the emergency department (ED) with severe and sudden dyspnea, which progressed over 15 minutes while at rest. The patient did not have relief after paramedics administered albuterol by nebulizer, high-flow oxygen, aspirin, and nitroglycerin.

On evaluation, the patient was in obvious respiratory distress, in the tripod

Benefits of thoracic US

Dyspnea is a common complaint in the ED and is disproportionately involved in higher-acuity patients.7 The Centers for Disease Control document that more than 3.5 million visits each year are made to US EDs with a chief complaint of dyspnea.8 Accurate and rapid diagnosis is paramount to making correct treatment and disposition decisions. Dyspneic patients often find it difficult to relate the full details of their history. Furthermore, their physical examination findings often have poor

US probe selection for thoracic applications

Traditionally, lung US was performed with an intermediate frequency US probe at 5 to 7 MHz.3, 12 Because many US systems in use in the ED and intensive care unit (ICU) do not have this probe, more modern sonographic studies emphasize use of either the high-frequency 10-MHz to 13-MHz linear array probe or the 3-MHz to 5-MHz phased-array probe for pulmonary applications.

Normal lung US anatomy

US techniques for assessment of the lung rely on the imaging of the pleural line, which represents the interface of the visceral and parietal pleura of the lung closely opposed to one another. In normal lung, the pleural line is found just deep to the ribs and appears as an echogenic horizontal line that moves back and forth as the patient breathes. It often has a shimmering or twinkling appearance known as lung sliding. The comet-tail artifact is another sonographic finding seen in normal lung

Imaging for pneumothorax (PTX)

Patients with PTX may have rapid decompensation, necessitating acute management with placement of a needle or tube thoracostomy. Chest radiographs have served as the traditional diagnostic test for this disease in both medical and trauma patients. However, they have limited sensitivity, because air released from a PTX typically accumulates in the nondependent anterior-medial and apical aspects of the thoracic cavity, areas that are difficult to evaluate on chest radiography.16

Although CT is the

Imaging for pleural effusion

Pleural effusions are common manifestations of both pulmonary and systemic diseases. Patients with significant pleural effusions may be in acute respiratory distress and require immediate diagnosis, as well as expedited drainage of the fluid. Although chest radiography has been the reference screening test for pleural effusion, portable films may miss significant amounts of fluid.30 Upright and lateral films aid in the detection of smaller effusions. The generally recognized amount of fluid

US-guided thoracentesis and thoracostomy

US can be used to guide thoracentesis and tube thoracostomy placement. During a thoracentesis, the pleural effusion can first be examined for septations or loculations, which may suggest a more complicated procedure (Figs. 19 and 20). The British Thoracic Society recommends that pleural effusions amenable to safe thoracentesis have at least a 10 mm depth, resulting in sufficient separation of the lung from the outer parietal pleura.39 The movement of lung should also be viewed over a full

Imaging of pulmonary edema/CHF

Acute decompensated heart failure is the most common cause of hospital admissions in patients older than 65 years, accounting for greater than 1 million hospitalizations annually in the United States alone.43 Chest radiography is relatively specific (76%), but poorly sensitive (67%), for pulmonary edema.44 The result is that the clinician may have diagnostic uncertainty in diagnosing this condition in up to one-third of patients presenting with acute dyspnea.45 US techniques used in the

US evaluation of COPD

As life expectancy increases, COPD and CHF are becoming more prevalent and may coexist in a subset of patients. With sometimes very similar acute presentations, the physician must correctly differentiate between these 2 different pathophysiologic processes. Although there are no definitive US markers for COPD, the A-lines that are seen in normal lung may be more prominent with COPD. Of more help to the clinician is the lack of identifiers suggesting an alternative diagnosis (i.e., B-lines).52

US evaluation of PNA

PNA comprises both accumulation of alveolar fluid and consolidation within the lung. Although a common diagnosis in the acute care setting, it is not always noted on chest radiographs and may be confused with other disease.54 However, as lung consolidation progresses, this organ becomes fluid filled and more compact.

Lung masses

Lung masses may also be detected on thoracic US.4 Lung masses are more easily visualized if they are peripherally located close to the pleura or are large. Lung masses appear similar to consolidated lung, taking on the appearance of hepatization with the look of a liver in the chest. M-mode may be used to further discriminate a mass from fluid (Fig. 28).

US evaluation of successful endotracheal intubation

Thoracic US has also been used during endotracheal intubations.6, 61 With US, an esophageal intubation that must be quickly recognized and removed can be easily distinguished. An esophageal intubation has the appearance of 2 discrete round structures within the neck, because the ETT is seen within the esophagus as 1 circular structure posterolaterally to the round, anteriorly located trachea (Fig. 29). This structure is best evaluated by placement of the high-frequency linear array probe in a

Role of thoracic US in resuscitation of the critically dyspneic patient

Several resuscitation techniques now emphasize both thoracic and lung US techniques in the resuscitation of the critical patient with acute shortness of breath.64 These protocols include the BLUE (Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency) protocol and the RADIUS (Rapid Assessment of Dyspnea with Ultrasound) protocol.65, 66 The BLUE protocol focuses on placement of the probe on 3 distinct areas of the chest to diagnose PTX, pulmonary edema, pulmonary consolidation, and effusions. The RADIUS protocol

Case discussion follow-up

On arrival to the ED, the patient was noted to be in severe respiratory distress and preparations for intubation were made. A bedside US was performed immediately and showed significant B-lines in 6 of the 8 chest zones bilaterally, associated with small pleural effusions, normal lung sliding, and comet-tail artifacts. Evaluation of the heart showed normal left ventricular contractility, without pericardial effusion or evidence of right heart strain. Electrocardiography did not show any signs

Summary

Bedside point-of-care thoracic US is a tool that may easily be used to evaluate the critically ill patient presenting with acute dyspnea or shortness of breath, because it can rule in and rule out a wide variety of emergent conditions. As detailed in the case presentation and in this article, US is useful in a wide range of pulmonary disease, including PTX, pleural effusions, pulmonary edema, PNA, lung masses, and COPD. In addition, US has been found to be helpful in the guidance of thoracic

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    Funding Sources: None.

    Conflict of Interest: V. Lobo, D. Weingrow, S.R. Williams, L. Gharahbaghian: None; P. Perera, Educational consultant: SonoSite Ultrasound.

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