Electroanalysis of isoniazid and rifampicin: Role of nanomaterial electrode modifiers
Introduction
Tuberculosis (TB), one of the top ten causes of human death, afflict approximately 10 million people every year. Around 1.3 million HIV-negative individuals and 374,000 HIV-positive people died from TB in 2016. Based on global tuberculosis report 2017, Treatment regimen usually administered for patients with susceptible strains, include isoniazid (INZ), rifampicin (RIF), pyrazinamide (PZM) and ethambutol (ETB) for 2 months, followed by “continuation phase” (INZ + RIF for 4 months). The two first line anti-tuberculosis drugs, INZ and RIF, are usually the most prescribed drugs for TB patients as well on the WHO's list of essential medicines.
Hepatotoxicity associated with INZ and RIF, can even be more disastrous than viral hepatitis (Ramappa and Aithal, 2013). To avoid such lethal adverse effects, development of reliable, simple, rapid and selective analytical methods is highly crucial for accurate measurement of these two medications in biological fluids as well as in quality control process of pharmaceutical preparations (Thapliyal et al., 2015).
Because of its operational simplicity, rapidity and real-time detection possibility, electrochemical sensors could be worthy tools for this purpose. However, bare electrodes exhibited large over-potential and low sensitivity and selectivity (Lima et al., 2016). Modification of electrodes with nanomaterials, can greatly improve the electrochemical response (Jena and Raj, 2010, Asadpour-Zeynali and Mollarasouli, 2017). In this review, we first present a brief description of INZ and RIF and then deeply focus in nano-structured electrode modifiers that have been investigated in the last two decades.
Section snippets
General description of INZ and RIF
Isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide or pyridine-4-carboxylic acid hydrazide, abbreviated as IZ, INH or INZ), the most prescribed drug in tuberculosis, was first synthesized in 1912 (Rozwarski et al., 1998; Chouchane et al., 2000). INZ is a lipophilic molecule (pKa = 1.8, 3.5 and 10.8 related to hydrazine nitrogen, pyridine nitrogen, and acidic group respectively) (Lund, 1994), therefore, at acidic pH, charged positively (Atta et al., 2011a, Atta et al., 2011b).
In liver, INZ is metabolized to
Applicability of sensors for INZ and RIF determination
Anti-tubercular medications associated hepatic damage can be more dangerous than that of acute viral hepatitis (Ramappa and Aithal, 2013). INZ is supposed to have more toxic effect on liver and co-administration of this drug with RIF increases the rate of hepatotoxicity (Chang et al., 2007). Due to their small therapeutic windows, the plasma levels of INZ and RIF must be tightly and repeatedly controlled by using a reliable tool to achieve a more effective treatment, avoid adverse reactions and
Electroanalysis of INZ and RIF
Several sensing procedures have been reported to date for analysis of INZ and RIF including mass-sensitive quartz crystal microbalance (QCM)-based sensors (Bano et al., 2019; Munawar et al., 2019), chemiluminescence-based sensors (Song et al., 2001; Xiong et al., 2007), membrane-based optical sensors (Safavi et al., 2008), etc. Based on the literatures, however, the most popular devices are electrochemical sensors.
Conclusion
Compared with high cost sophisticated instruments, sensors are valuable detection tools in developing countries with high incidence of tuberculosis and low financial resources. In order to achieve an electrochemical sensor with maximum reusability, electrode modification should be avoided as far as possible (Karimi et al., 2010). Even though in some occasions, unmodified electrodes exhibited better performance (for example, FIA-amperometry of INZ with unmodified SPCE revealed wider LDR and much
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
We appreciate Dr. Javad Tashkhorian (Shiraz university) for his generous engagement in technical revision.
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