Solanum nigrum enhancement of the immune response and disease resistance of tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon against Vibrio harveyi
Introduction
Finfish aquaculture is rapidly developing globally. Penaeid shrimp culture, especially black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon culture, is economically important species and the exports valued in Thailand at US$1.6 billion in 1998 (Thai Department of Business Economics, 1999). However, problems of adverse environmental conditions and disease outbreaks due to several Vibrio species has been reported as pathogenic for shrimp aquaculture industry (Lavilla-Pitogo et al., 1990, Pizzuto and Hirst, 1995, Thune et al., 1991) a seriously huge economic losses. Among them, Vibrio harveyi is the most frequently detected species that infects P. monodon hepatopancreas to cause acute or chronic infections known as vibriosis leading to mass mortality of larvae in hatcheries or juveniles in grow-out ponds (Baticados et al., 1990, Jiravanichpaisal et al., 1994, Lightner, 1993). The traditional approaches, such as chemotherapy for disease prevention and management are prohibited due to the emergence of seafood safety issues caused by drug-resistant micro-organisms, in addition to antibiotic residues in farmed animals and the environment (Weston, 1996). Therefore, finding effective approaches, such as vaccines, probiotics, and immunostimulants, which do not involve drug usage for aquaculture disease control instead of using chemotherapeutic methods, has become an interesting issue (Harikrishnan et al., 2011a, Sakai, 1999).
The medicinal use of herbs has a very long tradition in Asian countries. Solanum nigrum Linn. (Solanaceae), commonly known as “black nightshade,” has been extensively used in traditional medicine in India and other parts of the world to cure liver disorders, cough, asthma, wounds, ulcers, leprosy, skin diseases, hemorrhoids, dropsy, and inflammations (Warrier et al., 1996). The phytochemical studies revealed the plant contains glycoalkaloids (solanine, solamargine, solanigrine, and solasodine), steroidal glycosides (β-solamargine, solasonine, and α,β-solansodamine), steroidal saponins (diosgenin), steroidal genin (gitogenin), tannin, alkaloid (solanine) polyphenolic compounds (Duke, 1985, Saijo et al., 1982, Son et al., 2003). Several studies indicated that S. nigrum exhibited anti-ulcer, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, anti-cancer, cytotoxic properties and antiulcerogenic and hepatoprotective agents (Prasanth Kumar et al., 2001, Raju et al., 2003, Raju and Bird, 2007, Jainu and Devi, 2004, Jainu and Devi, 2006, Al-Fatimi et al., 2007, Yamada et al., 1997, Shishodia and Aggarwal, 2006, Arulmozhi et al., 2010). One of recent study indicate that aqueous extract of this herb significantly inhibit fish pathogenic bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila in vitro and A. hydrophila infected Channa punctatus and treated with the herb significantly increased the hematological parameters (Rajendiran et al., 2008). It also has the capacity to scavenge hydroxyl radicals (Kumar et al., 2001) by inhibiting oxidative damage (Lin et al., 2008). However, there was no report of this herb as immunostimulants in shrimp or fish culture to prevent diseases. Thereafter, S. nigrum extract with different doses was incorporated into the diet and fed to P. monodon to evaluate its effects on immunomodulation and disease prevention against V. harveyi.
Section snippets
Herbal extract and diet preparation
S. nigrum plant was collected from locally and the identification was done by Plant Science Department. The roots were collected from the plants, washed thoroughly with tap water to rid them of dirt. After washing, they were dried under shade to make them suitable for grinding. The dried herbal were grounded in a mechanical grinder and sieved then stored in an air tight container for further use. One hundred grams of coarsely powdered was successively extracted with 85% ethanol and then
Hematology
The total hemocyte count (THC) and hyaline cell (HC) did not significantly increased in P. monodon fed with 0.01% and 1.0% doses of S. nigrum extract enriched diets to the control against V. harveyi. However, P. monodon fed with 0.1% and 1.0% doses of S. nigrum extract enriched diets significantly increased the THC and HC when compared to control against V. harveyi. The semi-granular cell (SGC) and granular cell (GC) did not significant change in shrimp fed with 0.01% and 0.1% doses of herbal
Discussion
In the recent years, there is increasing interest in the use of herbal extracts as dietary and therapeutic supplements indicate that modulate immune function in fish and shellfish (Harikrishnan et al., 2011a). Immunological approaches to prevent both fish and shrimp diseases have been normally used antibiotics, chemicals or vaccination against specific pathogens, while the use of immunostimulants is relatively a new and developing area (Boone and Schoffenich, 1979). In Asia, mushrooms and
Acknowledgement
RH is grateful to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India for the award of Research Associateship which made this work possible and for the financial assistance through KOSEF Postdoctoral Fellowship and BK 21 program of the Ministry of Education, South Korea. The authors are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, India for the facilities made available through FIST program to the department of animal science. The authors thank Ms. Jayalakshmi Harikrishnan,
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