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Reducing the health effect of particles from agriculture

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    Despite the significant role that NH3 has in the formation of PM2.5, it has been relatively lagging in terms of regulation when in comparison to other precursors such as SO2 and NOx (Megaritis et al., 2013). In fact, NH3 can increase the rate of reactions in the atmosphere of both SO2 and NOx, resulting in an even larger concentration of particulates (Brunekreef et al., 2015). In Europe for example, the NEC Directive required that in 2020, emissions of SO2 and NOx were to be reduced by 59% and 42% respectively, but NH3 emissions were to be reduced by only 6% in comparison (Brunekreef et al., 2015).

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    However, epidemiological studies have frequently found adverse health effects of secondary inorganic aerosols [69], which may be due to several mechanisms, including an effect on the hygroscopicity of PM enhancing the exposure to toxic PM components, such as soluble transition metals [69]. Based on research over the past 20 years, it has thus been concluded that N particle components do not contribute less to the health risks than other particles [70–72]. Current experimental and epidemiological studies do not allow to relate specific health effects to individual components [66].

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    BJ1 (N-CtrP) and BJ4 (CtrP) were two windy sample groups and the dust contributions were 3.1 μg/m3 (22.6%) and 2.0 μg/m3 (13.2%), respectively, which confirmed the effectiveness of dust control. Livestock and arable agricultural regions contributed largely to SIA formation due to their emissions of ammonia (Stokstad, 2014; Brunekreef et al., 2015; Chang et al., 2016). These regions were predominantly outside of the emission control areas and influenced Beijing by long range atmospheric transport (Meng et al., 2011).

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