Shrimp and fish pond soils: processes and management

doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00641-5

Aquaculture

Volume 220, Issues 1–4, 14 April 2003, Pages 549-567

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(02)00641-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

The pond bottom soil and the accumulated sediments are integral parts of ponds. Concentrations of nutrients, organic matter and microorganism density in the pond bottom are several orders of magnitude greater than in the water. The accumulation of organic sediments may limit pond intensification. The intensive organic matter degradation at the pond bottom and high sediment oxygen demand exceeds the oxygen renewal rate. This leads to the development of anoxic conditions in the sediments and at the sediment–water interface. A series of anaerobic processes, affected by the redox potential of the system, are taking place. A large number of potentially toxic materials are generated. Among those are organic acids, reduced organic sulfur compounds, reduced manganese and sulfides.

Shrimp, as animals that normally live on or near the bottom, are exposed to conditions on the pond bottom. Exposure to toxic materials endanger the well being of the cultured shrimp. Reduced feeding, slower growth, mortality and possibly higher sensitivity to disease are reported.

The rational use of aerators to minimize the area of sludge accumulation, construction of ponds to trap sludge, stirring sediments, chemical poising of the redox system and environmentally accepted treatment and reuse of drained sediments are means to control the conditions at the pond bottom.

Introduction

Properties of the pond bottom soil (sediments) and processes occurring at the bottom soil and in the soil–water interface are very important regarding the well being and growth of fish or shrimp in ponds. Nutrients and organic residues tend to accumulate at the bottom and are, thus, to some extent, removed from the water phase. However, an excessive accumulation beyond what could be defined as the carrying capacity of the sediments may result in the deterioration of the pond system, as specified later. Such development seems to be of special importance for shrimp culture, since shrimps live in the soil–water transition zone. Reactions and fluxes within and across the water–soil interface are very significant in natural aquatic systems and even more in intensive aquaculture systems. Organic matter settles and accumulates on the pond bottom in extensive, semi-intensive and intensive ponds. Anaerobic conditions develop in the sediments of intensively stocked and fed shrimp ponds, the process being more pronounced with the increase in pond intensification. The development of anaerobic conditions constrains production and is a barrier to further intensification.

Three terms describing pond bottom soils are used here and in the technical literature. The term “sediments” is used in the limnological and oceanographic literature pertaining to the fact that bottom of lakes and oceans are made mostly of materials sedimenting from the water during long periods of time. Ponds are constructed in native soils, having bottom soils. Later, both the sedimentation of plankton and feed residues as well as the scouring of loosely consolidated soil and deposition of fine particles on the bottom, leads to a change in the properties of the bottom soil. Often, one finds in the stagnant or deeper parts of the pond an accumulation of very soft loose material, relatively rich in organic matter that is often called sludge. Sediments accumulating in lined ponds, having high organic matter concentrations would also be defined as sludge. There is a continuum from bottom soil, through sediment to sludge. In this work, the terms bottom soil and sediment will describe the bottom of the pond, while the term sludge will be used specifically to the soft, fluidized, organic-rich residue.

This manuscript is a literature review of the physical, biological and chemical processes occurring at the pond bottom that influence aquaculture production, giving special attention to shrimp culture including supporting data obtained in fish ponds. In addition, potential technologies to mitigate problems occurring at the soil–water interface in ponds are discussed.

Section snippets

Accumulation of nutrients and organic matter in pond soils

Cultured aquatic animals accumulate between 5% and 40% of nutrients in the feed (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus). A summary of nutrient accumulation by fish and shrimp is given in Table 1.

The average nutrient retention by fish and shrimp, calculated from published data listed, is 13% for carbon, 29% for nitrogen and 16% for phosphorus (Table 1). The low carbon recovery is probably due to the fact that a large fraction of carbon in the feed is lost by respiration.

Accumulations of carbon, nitrogen

Microbial activity in pond bottom soils

Sediments are enriched with nutrients and organic matter by sedimentation of organic materials to the pond bottom. The concentrations of nutrients (including organic carbon compounds) in the pond bottom soil are typically several orders of magnitude higher than those found in the water (Table 3). The amounts of nutrients in a 1-cm layer of the pond bottom are normally about 10 or more times higher than the equivalent amounts in a 1-m deep water column. The bottom becomes a favorable site for

Sediment oxygen demand in shrimp ponds

Dissolved oxygen concentration is one of the critical factors affecting processes and conditions at the sediment–water interface. Sediment oxygen demand (SOD) is an indicator of the intensity of the mineralization process and benthic community metabolism. A compilation of SOD data for shrimp and fish ponds is given in Table 4.

SOD is commonly determined by different methods: sediment cores, in situ tubes, benthic chamber, whole pond budget calculations and calculations based upon oxygen profiles

Redox reactions in the pond bottom soil

When oxygen is depleted, other terminal electron acceptors can be used to mediate the decomposition of organic matter. Many anaerobic processes taking place in the pond bottom lead to the production of reduced and potentially toxic compounds. Anaerobic conditions may affect aquaculture production both due to the unfavorable conditions at the pond bottom, or affect it through the diffusion of the reduced compounds from the sediment upward to the water column.

The sequence of redox reactions as

Effects of accumulated sediment on shrimp production

Pond bottom conditions are more critical for shrimp than for other aquaculture species because shrimp spend most of their time on the bottom, burrow into the soil and ingest pond-bottom soil Boyd, 1989, Chien, 1989. The distribution of penaeid shrimp in the natural environment can be influenced by sediment characteristics Williams, 1958, Hughes, 1968, Rulifson, 1981, Somers, 1987. Penaeid shrimp commonly burrow into the substrate to hide from predators Fuss and Ogren, 1966, Boddeke, 1983.

Management of shrimp pond bottom soil

Theory, laboratory experiments and field data indicate that the conditions in the pond bottom are very important to the success of aquaculture production systems. This is especially true for semi-intensive to super intensive shrimp production systems. Control of pond bottom reactions is possible through the use of several means.

An important principle is to Minimize coverage of the pond bottom by sludge. The effect of reduced sediments on pond productivity is lowered if the area covered by

Conclusions

The natural carrying capacity of pond bottom seems to be a limiting factor toward further intensification of aquaculture systems. This point was clearly demonstrated in fish culture and seems to be true for shrimp pond intensification. Moreover, there is evidence that the deterioration of the pond bottom, the increase in the amount of waste accumulation and the development of anaerobic conditions hinder shrimp utilization of feed, retard growth, possibly create stress and lead to the increase

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Citation Excerpt :
However, options for aquaculture regions have not been studied yet, even though the trend toward org-C accumulation is expected to continue due to expanding aquaculture activities. For instance, aquaculture ponds worldwide cover an area of 1.11 × 108 ha and accumulate an annual estimated 200 tons ha‐1 org-C (an equivalent 7.5–10 cm layer of wet newly deposited material) (Avnimelech and Ritvo, 2003; Boyd et al., 2010). Therefore, it is relevant to explore the distribution of org-C and its impacts on sediment P release in the aquaculture ponds.
Environmental pollution associated with aquaculture activities is one of the major bottlenecks encountered in the sustainable development of fisheries. Accumulating organic carbon (org-C) is an inevitable but undesirable consequence of aquaculture activities, and its degradation influences nutrient flux. However, neither the variations in org-C accumulation nor its impact on phosphorus (P) dynamic has been clearly untangled and reliably quantified so far. Therefore, we carried out a field survey to examine the influences of org-C accumulation on sediment P release in mariculture ponds. The results suggested that org-C contents varied considerably between ponds, being significantly lower in monoculture ponds with bivalve shellfish than in polyculture ponds with bivalve shellfish, shrimp, crab, and fish, likely due to the less-artificial-feeding practice and the function of bivalve shellfish as “environmental cleaners.”
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Shrimp and fish pond soils: processes and management

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Accumulation of nutrients and organic matter in pond soils

Microbial activity in pond bottom soils

Sediment oxygen demand in shrimp ponds

Redox reactions in the pond bottom soil

Effects of accumulated sediment on shrimp production

Management of shrimp pond bottom soil

Conclusions

Aquaculture

Aquaculture

Aquaculture

Aquac. Eng.

Aquaculture

Org. Geochem.

Aquac. Eng.

Aquaculture

Aquac. Eng.

Aquac. Eng.

Aquaculture

Aquac. Eng.

J. Exp. Mar. Ecol.

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Mar. Pollut. Bull.

Aquac. Eng.

Aquac. Eng.

Aquac. Eng.

Adv. Agron.

Aquaculture

Aquac. Eng.

Aust. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.

Aquaculture

Biochem. Pharmacol.

Aquaculture

Aquac. Eng.

J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.

Effect of hydrogen sulfide on northern pike eggs and sac fry

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.

Reactions in fish pond sediments as inferred from sediment cores data

Sludge accumulation in the shrimp pond bottom: significance and management

Asian Shrimp News

A tentative nutrient budget for intensive fish ponds

Bamidgeh, Isr. J. Aquac.

Aeration, mixing and sludge control in shrimp ponds

Glob. Aquac. Alliance Advocate

Sedimentation and resuspension in earthen fish ponds

J. World Aquac. Soc.

Response of juvenile Metapenaeus bennettae Rcek and Dall, 1965 (Decapoda, Penaeidae) to sediments of differing particle size

Crustaceana

Effects of daily harrowing on pond soil and water nutrient levels and on rohu fingerling production

Prog. Fish-Cult.

C and N mineralization in the sediments of earthen marine fish pond

Mar. Ecol., Prog. Ser.

Survival strategies of penaeid shrimps and their significance for shrimp culture

Chemical budget for channel catfish ponds

Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.

Water quality management and aeration in shrimp farming

Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture

Shrimp pond bottom soil and sediment management

Bottom Soils, Sediment, and Pond Aquaculture

Dry matter, ash, and elemental composition of pond-cultured Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus stylirostris

J. World Aquac. Soc.

Chemical characteristics of bottom soils from freshwater and brackishwater aquaculture ponds

J. World Aquac. Soc.

High ammonium production from sediments in hypereutrophic shrimp ponds

Mar. Ecol., Prog. Ser.

Bacteria in shrimp pond sediments: their role in mineralizing nutrients and some suggested sampling strategies

Aquac. Res.

The Management of Sediment in Prawn Ponds

Proceedings of the Third Brazilian Shrimp Farming Congress, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil

Study on the sediment chemistry dynamics of prawn pons. Environmental survey and its improvement on shrimp growout pond

Coast. Fish. Ser.

Reduction of sulfate to sulfide in waterlogged soil

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc.

Polyculture of Chinese carps and prawns at commercial densities and reduced feeding rates: I. Water and sediment microbial ecology

J. World Maric. Soc.