Sparkling Wines: Features and Trends from Tradition

doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-394597-6.00001-X

Advances in Food and Nutrition Research

Volume 66, 2012, Pages 1-45

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394597-6.00001-X Get rights and content

Abstract

Sparkling wines contain at least three CO₂ pressure bars at 20 °C. Carbonic gas is required to have an endogenous origin, obtained via a second fermentation, in the following European categories: sparkling wines and quality sparkling wines. In these types of sparkling wines, high gas pressure, together with other wine components, enables them to produce effervescence and foam when poured into the glass. The most commonly used grape varieties are Chardonnay and Pinot. Elaboration consists of two phases. In the first phase, the base wine is obtained after applying white vinification. The second phase consists of refermenting the wine, either in the bottle (champenoise or traditional method) or in isobaric tanks (Charmat method). The second fermentation requires the addition of “liqueur de tirage” to the base wine. The sparkling wines have a special biological aging or aging sur lies. As sparkling wines remain in contact with the lees, they develop sensory notes such as toasty, lactic, sweet, and yeasty, which can be attributed to proteolytic processes, components that would serve as the substrate for chemical and enzymatic reactions and to causes related with release–absorption between cell walls and the wine.

Section snippets

Historical Background

The first signs of the production of sparkling wine in the Champagne region of France occurred in the late seventeenth century. Wine has been produced in this wine-growing region since Roman times (from 50 A.D.), called vinum titillum. However, wine production itself is not documented until the year 800. During the Middle Ages, wines from Champagne were characterized as being lively, light, clear, off-dry, and often coming with a fleeting and gentle effervescence due to the incomplete

Definition and Types of Sparkling Wines and Other Effervescent Wines

Generically speaking, sparkling wines are a type of wine that contains carbon dioxide in solution. However, when CO₂ is exogenous, added in a continuous manner to wine that has been stabilized and cooled down to − 2 °C, it is considered fizzy wine. These carbonated wines belong to a lower category, price range, and quality. According to European Union terminology (6.6.2008 Official Journal of the European Union L 148/47), they are called “aerated sparkling wines.” The term “sparkling wine” is

Cultivation and Harvest

Viticulture, destined to sparkling wine production, combines traditional practices with the newest techniques, to assure the highest grape quality. The most important factors are climatic and soil conditions, grape variety use, training system, and disease and pest control.

Elaboration Process

Regardless of the type of white or red grape used, the elaboration process of white and rosé sparkling wines encompasses two clearly defined phases. The first stage follows the same vinification practices typical for white or rosé table wines. By the end of vinification, the so-called base wine used for the second fermentation is ready. The second phase includes a refermentation with added sugar and aging in contact with the lees (aging sur lies). This phase is especially delicate as it occurs

Organoleptic Characteristics

The sensory attributes of wine are the reason for its consumption. Wines, including sparkling wines, are enjoyable food products that provide pleasure to the consumer. Although they possess some nutritional value due to their caloric content and/or healthy bioactive compounds, from a nutritional standpoint they are easily replaced by other foods. All winemaking strategies, from grape to bottling, are secondary to its sensory characteristics. There are three principal attributes that should be

Data of Production and Consumption

According to data from the International Wine and Spirit Research (IWSR), provided by Freixenet S.A., the total production of sparkling wines worldwide was 2079 million bottles. Figure 1.7 shows that since 2007, production has been decreasing, possibly as a result of the economic crisis that has unfolded in developed countries. However, with the recovery and economies of emerging countries, the outlook for market growth is optimistic (Fig. 1.8).

The leading producers of sparkling wines are the

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (MCYT, Spain), project AGL and AGL2011-23872/AGL, and by the Generalitat de Catalunya, project 2009SGR606 (Spain). Special thanks to Jordi Torrens from Freixenet S.A.

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Citation Excerpt :
Many of these organoleptic differences have been associated with the release of yeast components during ageing with the lees by autophagic/autolytic processes (Di Gianvito et al., 2019). In this sense, some authors (Buxaderas and López-Tamames, 2012; Jackson, 2020) pointed out that Charmat sparkling wines with longer contact with the lees can release yeast compounds and acquire characteristics more like those obtained by the Traditional method. Comparing the Traditional and Charmat methods, there are some obvious differences between the processes: (1) the volumes of base wine during foaming (prise de mousse) and ageing on the lees (sur lie), wherein one method the second fermentation occurs in a bottle (small volume), in the other, it occurs in pressure tanks (large volume); (2) the contact material with the liquid in glass (Traditional) and stainless steel (Charmat); (3) the Charmat method include the possibility of filtration and clarification, while the Traditional method just clarification (Di Gianvito et al., 2019; Ribéreau-Gayon et al., 2021; Togores, 2018).
In this study, we followed the yeast and wine behaviour during the second fermentation and subsequent lees ageing of sparkling wines produced by Traditional and Charmat methods at an industrial scale. During this period, we conducted physicochemical, microbiological, gene expression, and marker analyses of characteristics related to wine ageing. Our results show that the yeast behaviour during the fermentation is similar in both methods. However, after fermentation, there is a faster decrease in yeast vitality and viability in the Charmat method, together with an increase in the expression of autophagy-related genes (AMS1, APE1, and ATG8). We relate these factors to ageing with the continuous homogenization of the liquid practised in the Charmat method, and static ageing with the lees concentrated at the bottom of the bottle performed in the Traditional method. Despite the variation in yeast viability during ageing, there are no differences in soluble proteins, free amino nitrogen, total phenols, antioxidant activity, and colour evolution between the wines produced by the two methods, assuming few differences over the time that monitoring was conducted.
Impact of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and non-Saccharomyces yeasts to improve traditional sparkling wines production
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The méthode Champenoise is one of the most famous ways to produce sparkling wine and is generally known as traditional method. It is based on the second fermentation of a base wine with the addition of a liqueur de tirage (i.e., wine, sucrose, ethanol-adapted yeast cells, nutrients, and a clarifying agent), in characteristic bottles (Buxaderas and López-Tamames, 2012; Torresi et al., 2011). Inside the bottles yeasts consume sugar producing ethanol and carbon dioxide (about six standard atmospheres) that results in effervescence.
In this study the effect of a co-inoculum of S. cerevisiae (F6789) with Torulaspora delbrueckii (TB1) or Starmerella bacillaris (SB48) on the oenological and aroma characteristics of sparkling wines obtained with the Champenoise method was investigated. The autolytic outcome and the sensory profile of sparkling wines were also evaluated. The secondary fermentations were completed by all mixed and single starter cultures with the only exception of those guided by Starm. bacillaris. Sparkling wines produced with S. cerevisiae F6789+Starm. bacillaris SB48 showed the highest amounts of glycerol (6.51 g/L). The best autolytic potential was observed in sparkling wines produced with +Starm. bacillaris (81.98 mg leucin/L) and S. cerevisiae+T. delbrueckii (79.03 mg leucin/L). The lowest value was observed for sparkling wines obtained with S. cerevisiae F6789 (53.96 mg leucin/L). Sparkling wines showed different aroma and sensory profiles. Esters were mainly present in sparkling wines obtained with S. cerevisiae F6789 (88.09 mg/L) followed by those obtained with S. cerevisiae+T. delbrueckii (87.20 mg/L), S. cerevisiae +Starm. bacillaris (81.93 mg/L). The content of esters decreased over time, and that might be related to the adsorption on lees and chemical hydrolysis. The highest concentrations of higher alcohols were found in sparkling wines produced with S. cerevisiae+T. delbrueckii (27.50 mg/L). Sparkling wines obtained with S. cerevisiae +Starm. bacillaris were well differentiated from the others due to their high score for the descriptor for spicy, bread crust, freshness and floral.
Tailored strains with different autolytic potential might represent an interesting strategy to improve traditional sparkling wine production and favour their differentiation.
Effect of endogenous CO<inf>2</inf> overpressure on the yeast “stressome” during the “prise de mousse” of sparkling wine
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Citation Excerpt :
During this aging, autolysis of the yeast cells takes place (Comuzzo et al., 2015; Martí-Raga et al., 2016; Torresi et al., 2011) modifying the organoleptic characteristics of sparkling wines (Esteruelas et al., 2014; Mans et al., 2018). The process that involves the second fermentation and the subsequent aging period is called “prise de mousse” (Buxaderas and López-Tamames, 2012; Martínez-García et al., 2017). The capacity of the yeast strain to overcome the stress in sparkling wines has been proposed as a selection method to guarantee the success of the prise de mousse process (Mans et al., 2018; Martí-Raga et al., 2016).
Sparkling wines elaboration by the “Champenoise” method involves a second fermentation of a base wine in hermetically sealed bottles and a subsequent aging period. The whole process is known as “prise de mousse”. The endogenous CO₂ pressure produced during the second fermentation by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae could modify the sub-proteome involved in the response to different stresses, or “stressome”, and cell viability thus affecting the wine organoleptic properties. This study focuses on the stressome evolution along the prise de mousse under CO₂ overpressure conditions in an industrial S. cerevisiae strain. The results reveal an important effect of endogenous CO₂ overpressure on the stress sub-proteome, cell viability and metabolites such as glycerol, reducing sugars and ethanol. Whereas the content of glycerol biosynthesis-related proteins increased in sealed bottle, those involved in the response to toxic metabolites like ROS, ethanol, acetaldehyde and acetic acid, decreased in content. Proteomic profile obtained in this study may be used to select suitable wine yeast strains for sparkling wine elaboration and improve their stress tolerance.
Immobilisation of yeasts on oak chips or cellulose powder for use in bottle-fermented sparkling wine
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Sparkling wine production comprises two successive fermentations performed by Sacharomyces cerevisiae strains. This research aimed to: develop yeast immobilisation processes on two wine-compatible supports; study the effects of yeast type (IOC 18–2007 and 55A) and the immobilisation support type (oak chips and cellulose powder) on the fermentation kinetics, the deposition rate of lees and the volatile composition of the finished sparkling wine; compare the fermentation parameters of the wines inoculated with immobilised or non-immobilised cells. Proper immobilisation of yeast on oak chips and cellulose powder was demonstrated by electron microscopy. Total sugar consumption occurred in under 60 days in all bottles, regardless of the strain used and the way they were inoculated in wine. Deposition of lees was 3-fold faster in the bottles containing immobilised cells than in those with free cells; no addition of adjuvants was necessary. The analysis of the volatile compounds of the finished sparkling wines showed significant differences in the formation of esters, acids, alcohols, aldehydes and lactones according to the yeast and the immobilisation support used. Oak chips were the more appropriate support for yeast immobilisation. No significant differences in the sensorial analysis of the sparkling wines produced by the different strategies were found.
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Sparkling wines production starts from a still wine that undergoes to a secondary fermentation. This step, also known with the French term prise de mousse, occurs after the addition of the liqueur de tirage, a mix of yeasts, sucrose nutrient, and adjuvants. Depending on the used technology, this secondary fermentation can occur inside the same bottle that reaches the consumer (traditional method) or in a pressurized tank (Charmat method). During sparkling wine production, yeasts are subjected to particular stress conditions and, for this reason, they have to possess some additional technological features respect to starters for still wines, such as autolytic ability and flocculation capacity. The growing diffusion of this wine brought researchers to evaluate new biotechnological approaches to improve sparkling wine quality.
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Fortified and sparkling wines are produced and consumed all over the world, primarily from grapes. Vermouth is a type of fortified wine, also known as “aperitif wine,” prepared from the base wine by adding mixture of herbs and spices or their extract. Different parts of various plants (herbs and spices) such as seeds, wood, leaves, bark, or roots in dry form or their extract are used in preparation of vermouth. Preparation of vermouth from fruits such as mango, apple, plum, sand pear, and wild apricot has been standardized and documented. A sparkling wine is a wine with carbon dioxide added (not less than 5 g/l at 20°C), produced by secondary fermentation in closed containers such as a bottle or tank to retain the carbon dioxide produced. Attempts to prepare sparkling wine from other fruits such as plum and apple have also been made successfully. Quality-wise, vermouths and sparkling wines made from nongrape fruits have also comparable physicochemical characteristics and acceptable sensory qualities. In this chapter, a comprehensive review has been made on the technology for the production of these types of wines from nongrape fruits and their quality characteristics. Besides this, the chapter also discusses the commercial potential of nongrape fruits for the production of these types of wines.

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Chapter 1 - Sparkling Wines: Features and Trends from Tradition

Abstract

Section snippets

Historical Background

Definition and Types of Sparkling Wines and Other Effervescent Wines

Cultivation and Harvest

Elaboration Process

Organoleptic Characteristics

Data of Production and Consumption

Acknowledgments

Anal. Chim. Acta

Food Chem.

Vibrat. Spectr.

Anal. Chim. Acta

Int. J. Food Microbiol.

Biochim. Biophys. Acta

Methods Enzymol.

Food Chem.

Food Chem.

Food Chem.

Phytochemistry

FEMS Microbiol. Lett.

Food Chem.

Food Chem.

Anal. Chim. Acta

Yeast autolysis in sparkling wine—A review

Aust. J. Grape Wine Res.

Protease a activity and nitrogen fractions released during alcoholic fermentation and autolysis in enological conditions

J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol.

Characteristics of sparkling base wines affecting foam behavior

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Influence of variety and aging on foaming properties of sparkling wine (Cava) 2

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Role of specific components from commercial inactive dry yeast winemaking. Preparations on the Growth of lactic acid bacteria

J. Agric. Food Chem.

β-Glucosidase activity in wine yeasts: Application in enology

Enzyme Microb. Technol.

Isolation and characterization of novel benzoates, cinnamates, flavonoids, and lignans from Riesling wines and screening for antioxidant activity

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Phenolics in white free run juices and wines from Penedès by high-performance liquid chromatography. Changes during vinification

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Vins mousseux, rapport de France

Bull. Off. Int. Vigne Vin

Formation of furfurylthiol exhibiting a strong coffee aroma during oak barrel fermentation from furfural released by toasted staves

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Food Texture and Viscosity: Concept and Measurement

The foaming properties of beer

J. Inst. Brew.

Identification of some foam-active compounds in Champagne base wines

Am. J. Enol. Vitic.

Characterization of foaming proteins in Champagne base wines

Am. J. Enol. Vitic.

Robotización de una cava de gran producción: una solución particular

ACE Rev. Enol.

The chemical characterization of the aroma of dessert and sparkling white wines (Pedro Ximénez, Fino, Sauternes, and Cava) by gas chromatography-olfactometry and chemical quantitative analysis

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Bubble size bubble frequency and rate of gas loss in sparkling wine

Aust. Grapegrower Winemarker

Effervescence in sparkling wines, the sequel

Aust. Grapegrower Winemarker

Use of ATR-FTIR microspectroscopy to monitor autolysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells in a base wine

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Fabricación de vinos espumosos

Evidence for yeast Autophagy during simulation of sparkling wine aging: A reappraisal of the mechanism of yeast autolysis in wine

Biotechnol. Progress

Phenolic composition of champagnes from chardonnay and pinot noir vintages

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Interactions between aroma compounds and whole mannoprotein isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains

Food Chem.

Release of nucleotides and nucleosides during yeast autolysis: Kinetics and potential impact on flavor

J. Agric. Food Chem.

The origin of ethylphenols in wines

J. Sci. Food Agr.

Oxidation of trans-caftaric acid and 2-S-glutathionylcaftaric acid in model solution

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Mechanism of trans-caffeoyltartaric acid and catechin oxidaton i model solutions containing grape polyphenoloxidase

J. Agric. Food Chem.

Proteomic approach to identify champagne wine proteins as modified by Botrytis cinerea infection

J. Proteome Res.

Nonenzymatic autoxidative reactions of caffeic acid in wine