Chemical changes in food by the maillard reaction

doi:10.1016/0308-8146(82)90069-3

Food Chemistry

Volume 9, Issues 1–2, July 1982, Pages 59-73

https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(82)90069-3 Get rights and content

Abstract

The Maillard reaction results from a reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids. Reactive intermediates are formed by a variety of pathways and these can yield both volatile flavour components and brown melanoidins of higher molecular weight. The formation of these compounds is desirable in the heating (cooking) of many food products (meat, coffee, bread) but their occurrence during storage is undesirable and leads to a reduction in quality. The mechanism of the Maillard reaction will be explained and the most important intermediates and reaction products will be pointed out and their properties described. Reaction conditions for the Maillard reaction and methods for its inhibition will be discussed together with a description of methods currently available for the early identification of the Maillard reaction in foods.

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Ral et al. (2016) reported similar effects from the overexpression of TaAMY3, while preharvest sprouting has also been shown to contribute to darker crust colour (Olaerts et al., 2018). Evidently, α-amylase from any source will contribute to increased Maillard browning of the crust through the hydrolysis of starch into water soluble sugars (Baltes, 1982). Late maturity α-amylase had a negative impact on cell structure, crumb resilience and crumb L* (Table 2).
Late maturity α-amylase (LMA) is associated with elevated α-amylase within the aleurone of wheat grains. The increased α-amylase contributes to a reduced falling number (FN). A reduction in FN also results from preharvest sprouting and frost during grain fill which are associated with poor baking quality. Low FN can also lead to downgrading of wheat at grain receival sites, reducing returns for wheat growers. A population created to investigate LMA expression was used to assess the impact of LMA on dough rheology, pan bread and yellow alkaline noodles. Elevated levels of α-amylase due to LMA were found to have a negative impact on dough development time, stability and mixing tolerance index. Elevated α-amylase also led to darker crust colour and increased loaf volume, however, the improvement in loaf volume was less than that produced by bread improver. The increased α-amylase content associated with LMA also reduced the brightness of cooked and uncooked yellow alkaline noodles and the strength of overcooked noodles. The detrimental effect of LMA on dough rheology and yellow alkaline noodles means that flours produced from LMA-affected grain have reduced utility in some important wheat markets.
Recent advances of ultrasound-assisted Maillard reaction
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The MR commonly occurs during thermal food processing; however, contrary to conventional believe, the MR can also occur at relatively low temperatures, e.g. during storage at room temperature. So far, previous studies have demonstrated that the reaction rate of MR is dependent on various conditions, e.g. combination and types of reactants, concentration of reactants, initial pH, water activity, reaction temperature, reaction time, etc. [28,29]. Among the above-mentioned conditions, the types of reactants highly determine the rate of MR. For example, the rate of MR is inversely proportional to the size of the reducing sugar molecule.
Maillard reaction (MR) is one of the most important chemical reactions in the food science domain with a long history of more than 100 years. As for ultrasound-assisted MR (US-MR), it has gradually drawn attention in a recent decade. Purpose of this paper is to provide a systematic review on recent advances of US-MR in model systems, glycation of protein, and food processing. Fundamental studies on simple MR model systems (i.e. reducing sugar and amino acid) have reported a promoted generation of colored and volatile MR products (MRPs). Critical steps influenced by US and possible mechanisms have been elucidated simultaneously. Other studies focused on modification of proteins which undergoes a glycation between proteins and saccharides as the initial stage of MR. Since the MR rate is extremely low in the presence of protein and saccharide, US becomes a promising mean of promoting the glycation. As a result, a number of functional properties of glycated protein obtained by US are significantly promoted, which extend their utilization in the food industry. The rest of studies reviewed in this article are concentrated on applying US to process real foods. Many attributes changed during US-assisted processing are induced by MR. Positive aspects brought by the promoted US-MR include enhanced antioxidant capacity and organoleptic properties (e.g. desirable color, low bitterness, enhanced flavor, etc.), as well as inhibited hazards (e.g. advanced glycation end-products, acrylamide, etc.) formed in the processed foods. Meanwhile, the promoted MR by US may also inevitably bring some negative aspects to the processed foods due to unfavored yellowish/browning colors, off-flavors and hazard components.
Post-storage changes of volatile compounds in air- and sun-dried raisins with different packaging materials using HS-SPME with GC/MS
2019, Food Research International
Free- and bound-form volatiles in sun-dried raisins (SDRs) and air-dried raisins (ADRs) of ‘Thompson Seedless’ were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for 0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of storage. The compounds originating from glycosidically bound (GB) volatiles were significantly more abundant in bound-form than their free-form. A total of 89 and 88 free-form compounds were identified in ADRs and SDRs, respectively. Overall, higher concentration of unsaturated fatty-acid-oxidation (UFAO) and Maillard reaction (MR) compounds were observed in the SDRs. The plastic and woven bags have an insignificant effect on the volatiles in the raisins. The main characteristics of ADR aroma were floral and fruity, while fatty, roasted, and chemical aromas were prominent in SDRs. With the exception of chemical aroma, the aromatic series (fruity, floral, herbaceous and roasted) increased during the storage duration and become more compelling in 12 month. The packaging materials have similar effect on aromatic series, except fruity note, which was higher in woven bag. The main floral and fruity aroma contributors were decanal, β-ionone, ethyl hexanoate, β-damascenone, and 1-octen-3-ol. Herein we identified UFAO and MR compounds as the main contributors of raisin aromas.
Effects of n-3 fatty acid sources on butter and hard cooked cheese; technological properties and sensory quality
2018, International Dairy Journal
The effects on milk, butter and hard cooked cheese of new n-3 fatty acid (FA) sources in cows' corn silage-based diets – microalgae DHA Gold^® (ALG), sieved extruded linseed (SEL) and their combination (SEL/ALG) – were assessed. Butter processing from ALG and SEL/ALG cream was not possible. Butter from SEL had less yellow colour and tended to be softer, with less rancid flavour and odour but stronger cream flavour. For SEL/ALG, cheese yield before brining was higher, but fat content in dry matter and curd dry matter were lower. For ALG and SEL/ALG, cheeses were evaluated as less coloured, more open, less firm, less elastic, more grainy and spicy. Cheese volatile compounds were affected by cows’ diet; higher concentrations of compounds from FA oxidation and amino acid catabolism were observed with the addition of microalgae DHA Gold^®. Flavour profiles of cheeses were slightly affected by this addition, but no off-flavour was perceived.
Effects of high-intensity ultrasound on Maillard reaction in a model system of d-xylose and l-lysine
2017, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry
Citation Excerpt :
The MR has been studied over one hundred years since French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard reported it firstly [1,2]. So far, previous studies have proven that the reaction rates of MR are highly depended on various conditions, including combination of reactants, concentration of reactants, initial pH, water activity, reaction temperature, and reaction time [3–6]. In general, the types of reactants in MR influence flavour profile; and the rest of conditions determine the kinetics [7,8].
This study compared the effects of high-intensity ultrasound on Maillard reaction (MR) with those of thermally produced MR using a model system of d-xylose and l-lysine. The ultrasonic MR process had higher depletion rates of reactants and higher generation rates of intermediate MR products (MRPs) and melanoidins under relatively low processing temperatures (55 and 60 °C). However, the rates were lower for ultrasonic MR than thermal MR when the processing temperature increased to 65, 70 and 75 °C. Overall, ultrasonic MR had relatively low activation energy (E_a) compared to thermal MR (e.g. 55.59 vs. 80.42 kJ mol⁻¹ for d-xylose depletion). Moreover, ultrasonic MR could produce at least one N-containing pyrazine (3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine), one N-containing amine (butyl amine) and one O-containing volatile compound (maltol) that were absent from thermal MR. The difference in flavour generation might be a result of the extremely high, albeit momentary, temperature and pressure condition produced by high-intensity ultrasound.
Content and evolution of potential furfural compounds in commercial milk-based infant formula powder after opening the packet
2015, Food Chemistry
Citation Excerpt :
On the other hand, basic media could cause the formation of Amadori compounds, and consequently, the formation of furfurals. This makes the formula susceptible to the Maillard reaction (MR), which affects the stability and nutritional composition of the formula (Agostoni et al., 1999; Baltes, 1982; Chávez-Servín, Castellote, & Lopez-Sabater, 2008a; Guo et al., 1998; Vanmil & Jans, 1991). Furfurals, undesirable compounds derived from the MR, are formed during the thermal process and/or during storage.
Potential furfural compounds were examined by RP-HPLC-DAD in 20 commercial milk-based powdered infant formula (IF) brands from local markets from Paris, France; DF, Mexico; Copenhagen, Denmark; England, UK; and Barcelona, Spain. We traced the evolution of these compounds after the packets had been opened at 0, 30 and 70 days of storage at room temperature (≈25 °C; minimum 23 °C and maximum 25.5 °C). All formula brands were analysed during the first 3–5 months of their shelf life. The mean values of all IFs for potential 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (HMF) + 2-furaldehyde (F) were 1115.2 μg/100 g (just opened), 1157.6 μg/100 g (30 days) and 1344.5 μg/100 g of product (70 days). In general, slight increases of potential furfural contents were observed in most of the studied IFs, which suggests that the Maillard reaction increases after opening the packets. The main furfural compound found was HMF, as expected. The range of potential HMF consumed for an infant about 6 months old feeding only on formula was estimated between 0.63 mg and 3.25 mg per day.

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Chemical changes in food by the maillard reaction

Abstract

J. Dairy Sci.

Maillard reaction seen from the nutritional angle. 3: Harmful substances formed by the Maillard reaction

Ind. Alim. Agric.

Chemistry of non-enzymic browning. VII. Crystalline di-d-fructoseglycine and some related compounds

Austral. J. Chemistry

Chemistry of non-enzymic browning. X. Difructoseamino acids as intermediates in browning reactions

Austral. J. Chemistry

Degradation of carbohydrates. III: Unsaturated hexosones

Austral. J. Chemistry

Mechanism of inhibition on non-enzymic browning

Chem. and Ind.

Reactions between amino acids, organic acids and sugars in freeze dried apricots

Nature

Die Bedeutung der Maillardreaktion für die Aromabildung in Lebensmitteln

Lebensmittel- und gerichtliche Chemie

Modellreaktionen zur Maillardreaktion. I: Nicht flüchtige Reaktionsprodukte aus der Umsetzung von d-Glucose mip p-Chloranilin

Zeitschr. Lebensmitteluntersuch. u. Forsch.

Bildung und Stabilität von Amadori-Verbindungen in wasserarmen Lebensmitteln

Zeitschr. Lebensm. Untersuch. u. Forsch.

Formation of mutagens in beef and beef extract during cooking

Science

Elektronenspinresonanz-Experimente an Roh- und Röstkaffeeproben

Zeitschr. Lebensmitteluntersuch. u. Forsch.

Zur Schädigung des Lysins bei der Herstellung und Lagerung von Trockenmilch

Milchwissenschaft

Gleichzitige Bestimmung von Lysin, Lysinoalanin, Furosin und Pyridosin in Lebens- und Futtermitteln

Zeitschr. Lebensmitteluntersuch. u. Forsch.

Chemisch analytischer Nachweis beginnender Qualitätsveränderungen bei wasserarmen Lebensmitteln

Zeitschr. Lebensmittel-Technol. u. -verfahrenstechnik

Mass spectrometry of three furanic compounds containing two or three furan nuclei

J. Agr. Food Chem.

Die Haltbarkeit von Lebensmitteln mit niedrigen und mittleren Wassergehalten

Chem. Mikrobiol. Technol. Lebensm.

Über den Effekt ω-ständiger Substituenten auf N-Glycosidbildung und Amadori-Umlagerung bei d-Glucohexosen

Chem. Ber.

Origin of flavors in foods