Research paper
Speeds and gaits of dinosaurs

https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(82)90005-0Get rights and content

Abstract

The known relationships of speed, gait and body size (derived mainly from mammals) are used to determine the gaits and theoretical maximum speeds of dinosaurs. Speed estimates are made for 62 dinosaurs (representing 51 genera) and are supplemented with information from comparative anatomy and from dinosaur trackways. It is concluded that smaller bipedal dinosaurs were capable of running at speeds up to 35 or 40 km/h. The so-called “ostrich dinosaurs” are credited with maximum speeds less than 60 km/h, and possibly as low as 35 or 40 km/h. Larger bipedal dinosaurs were probably restricted to walking or slow trotting gaits, with maximum speeds in the range 15–20 km/h. Most quadrupedal dinosaurs seem to have been restricted to a walking gait. Stegosaurs and ankylosaurs may have had maximum speeds as low as 6–8 km/h. Sauropods may have attained 12–17 km/h, and some ceratopsians may have been capable of trotting at speeds up to 25 km/h. On a weight-for-weight basis the speeds of dinosaurs are generally lower than those of mammals.

References (71)

  • J. Van Heerden

    The morphology and taxonomy of Euskelosaurus (Reptilia: Saurischia; Late Triassic) from South Africa

    Navors. Nas. Mus. (Bloemfontein)

    (1979)
  • R.McN. Alexander

    Estimates of speeds of dinosaurs

    Nature (London)

    (1976)
  • R.McN. Alexander

    Mechanics and scaling of terrestrial locomotion

  • R.McN. Alexander et al.

    Fast locomotion of some African ungulates

    J. Zool., London

    (1977)
  • R.McN. Alexander et al.

    Mechanics of running of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

    J. Zool., London

    (1979)
  • R.T. Bakker

    Experimental and fossil evidence for the evolution of tetrapod bioenergetics

  • A.F. Bennett et al.

    Dinosaur physiology: a critique

    Evolution

    (1973)
  • B. Brown

    The mystery dinosaur

    Nat. Hist.

    (1938)
    B. Brown

    The mystery dinosaur

    Nat. Hist.

    (1938)
  • B. Brown et al.

    The structure and relationships of Protoceratops

    Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.

    (1940)
  • R.M. Casamiquela

    Un nuevo dinosaurio ornitisquio triásico (Pisanosaurus mertii; Ornithopoda) de la formacion Ischigualasto, Argentina

    Ameghiniana

    (1967)
  • E. Casier

    Les Iguanodons de Bernissart. Inst. R. Sci. Nat. Belgique, Brussels

  • A.J. Charig

    The evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hind-limb: an explanation in functional terms

  • E.H. Colbert

    The weights of dinosaurs

    Am. Mus. Novit.

    (1962)
  • E.H. Colbert

    The Triassic dinosaur genera Podokesaurus and Coelophysis

    Am. Mus. Novit.

    (1964)
  • W.P. Coombs

    Theoretical aspects of cursorial adaptations in dinosaurs

    Q. Rev. Biol.

    (1978)
  • W.P. Coombs

    Forelimb muscles of the Ankylosauria (Reptilia, Ornithischia)

    J. Paleontol.

    (1978)
  • J.O. Farlow

    Estimates of dinosaur speeds from a new trackway site in Texas

    Nature

    (1981)
  • P.M. Galton

    The pelvic musculature of the dinosaur Hypsilophodon (Reptilia: Ornithischia)

    Postilla

    (1969)
  • P.M. Galton

    On the anatomy and relationships of Efraasia diagnostica (Huene) n. gen., a prosauropod dinosaur (Reptilia: Saurischia) from the Upper Triassic of Germany

    Paläontol. Z.

    (1973)
  • P.M. Galton

    The ornithischian dinosaur Hypsilophodon from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight

    Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Geol.

    (1974)
  • P.M. Galton

    Prosauropod dinosaurs (Reptilia: Saurischia) of North America

    Postilla

    (1976)
  • P.M. Galton et al.

    Skeleton of a hypsilophodontid dinosaur (Nanosaurus (?) rex) from the Upper Jurassic of Utah

    Brigham Young Univ., Geol. Stud.

    (1973)
  • C.W. Gilmore

    Osteology of the Jurassic reptile Camptosaurus, with a revision of the species of the genus, and a description of two new species

  • C.W. Gilmore

    Osteology of the armored Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genus Stegosaurus

    Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus.

    (1914)
  • C.W. Gilmore

    Osteology of Thescelosaurus, an orthopodous dinosaur from the Lance Formation of Wyoming

  • C.W. Gilmore

    Osteology of the carnivorous Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genera Antrodemus (Allosaurus) and Ceratosaurus

    Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus.

    (1920)
  • C.W. Gilmore

    On Troodon validus, an orthopodous dinosaur from the Belly River Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada

    Alberta Univ. Bull. Geol.

    (1924)
  • C.W. Gilmore

    Osteology of Apatosaurus, with special reference to specimens in the Carnegie Museum

    Mem. Carnegie Mus.

    (1936)
  • J. Gray

    Animal Locomotion

  • J.B. Hatcher

    Diplodocus (Marsh): its osteology, taxonomy, and probable habits, with a restoration of the skeleton

    Mem. Carnegie Mus.

    (1901)
  • J.B. Hatcher et al.

    The Ceratopsia

    Monogr. U.S. Geol. Surv.

    (1907)
  • N.C. Heglund et al.

    Scaling stride frequency and gait to animal size: mice to horses

    Science

    (1974)
  • M. Hildebrand

    Analysis of Vertebrate Structure

  • R.W. Hooley

    On the skeleton of Iguanodon atherfieldensis from the Wealden

    Q. J. Geol. Soc. London

    (1925)
  • J.R. Horner et al.

    Nest of juveniles provides evidence of family structure among dinosaurs

    Nature (London)

    (1979)
  • Cited by (88)

    • First discovery of a deinonychosaur trackway from the lower Upper Cretaceous of southeastern China

      2021, Cretaceous Research
      Citation Excerpt :

      Based on these values, h, V and the SL/h ratio are calculated for YWM 08381 to assess the trackmaker's gait. According to Thulborn (1982), each of the walking, trotting, and running gaits exhibit SL/h values lower than 2.0, between 2.0 and 2.9, and greater than 2.9, respectively. As a result, V and SL/h of YWM 08381 equal 6.1 km/h and 1.93 as a dromaeosaurid trackway, but 4.6 km/h and 1.52 as a troodontid trackway (Table 4).

    • A juvenile ornithopod tracksite from the Lower Cretaceous Haman Formation, South Korea

      2021, Cretaceous Research
      Citation Excerpt :

      Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the Gunbuk tracks were imprinted by bipedal animals. Several formulas are being used for the estimation of size, locomotion speed, gait, and body length or mass of trackmakers from the measurements of the trackways and tracks (Alexander, 1976; Thulborn, 1982, 1989). In the estimation of the trackmaker's hip height, estimates for small ornithopods were used (hip height: h = 4.8L; Thulborn, 1989).

    • Detection of Lower Cretaceous fossil impressions of a marine tetrapod on Monte Conero (Central Italy)

      2019, Cretaceous Research
      Citation Excerpt :

      the small size of the imprints (mean length and width 12.73 cm and 21.36 cm respectively) indicates a medium-small animal, with an approximate height at the hip of about 60 cm [four times the length of the foot, according to Alexander (1976). According to Thulborn (1982), however, the length of the limb is equal to four and a half times the length of the foot]. The considerations do not take into account that the impressions were probably produced by a reptile with paddles similar to those described in Zhang (2014), but the width of the trackway and the distance between the imprints support the conclusions above;

    • Application of vertebrate trace fossils to palaeoenvironmental analysis

      2015, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
      Citation Excerpt :

      These estimates have been re-evaluated using computer models (Henderson, 2003). When the presumed producer of the swim traces is known, h can be estimated from the sum of the lengths of femur, tibia and longest metatarsal, plus an increment of 9% to account for ankle bones and for soft tissues (Thulborn, 1982). Estimates of water depth of lacustrine deposits were accomplished using pterosaur swim traces on wave rippled bedding planes of the Cretaceous Dakota Group (Lockley et al., 2014), assuming that pterosaurs were floating in shallow water while touching the subaqueous substrates (Lockley and Wright, 2003).

    View all citing articles on Scopus
    View full text