Cognitive emotion regulation in the prediction of depression, anxiety, stress, and anger
Introduction
Coping has long been considered relevant to both the experience and treatment of emotional and physical distress (Lazarus, 1993, Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Adaptive coping is associated with the implementation of effective health behaviors (Lee-Baggley, DeLongis, Voorhoeave, & Greenglass, 2004) and has important implications for living with physical illness (Ridder & Schreurs, 2001). In addition, coping is inversely related to psychological distress (Bouchard, Guillemette, & Landry-Leger, 2004), and coping deficits are observed in a variety of mental disorders (e.g., Ball and Lee, 2000, Britton, 2004). In fact, certain coping styles appear to predict treatment-seeking (Avants, Warburton, & Margolin, 2000). Finally, it is not surprising that most empirically supported psychosocial treatments for emotional disorders emphasize the acquisition of coping skills or that clients’ coping skills are associated with treatment outcome (Beutler, Moos, & Lane, 2003).
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as the “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (p. 141). Lazarus (1993) distinguished between problem-focused coping (i.e., attempting to minimize distress through modifying oneself or one’s environment) and emotion focused coping (i.e., utilizing cognitive coping strategies to change the meaning of stressful events and lessen subsequent emotional distress). Both forms of coping are adaptive, and the most beneficial approach appears to depend on the nature of the stressful situation (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004, Ridder and Schreurs, 2001). Moreover, it is clear that emotional responses to stressful events can be regulated via the use of cognitive coping strategies (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004, Lazarus and Folkman, 1984, Ridder and Schreurs, 2001).
Instruments to assess both forms of coping (e.g., Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, Ways of Coping Questionnaire, COPE, etc.) have focused on the behavioral (e.g., turning to religion, alcohol-drug use, etc.) and cognitive aspects (e.g., acceptance, positive reinterpretation, etc.) of coping. A relatively new scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ; Garnefski et al., 2001), was developed to assess cognitive coping associated with emotion regulation. The CERQ stands out from previous instruments in its inclusion of a broader set of cognitive coping processes. Specifically, the CERQ measures nine cognitive coping processes: (1) self-blame; (2) blaming others; (3) acceptance; (4) refocus on planning (i.e., addressing the steps necessary to handle the situation); (5) positive refocusing (i.e., focusing on positive experiences); (6) rumination; (7) positive reappraisal (i.e., giving the event some sort of positive significance); (8) putting into perspective (i.e., downgrading the importance of the event); and (9) catastrophizing. The authors characterize self-blame, blaming others, rumination, and catastrophizing as maladaptive coping styles. Acceptance, refocus on planning, positive refocusing, positive reappraisal, and putting into perspective are described as adaptive coping styles (Garnefski et al., 2001).
As the CERQ was designed to measure the cognitive processes involved in affect regulation, validation studies should focus on the relationships between the subscales and the experience of different emotions (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004). Most of the CERQ research to date has focused on depression (e.g., Garnefski et al., 2003, Garnefski et al., 2002, Garnefski et al., 2001, Garnefski et al., 2004). Despite some variation across studies, self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing are consistently associated with depressive symptoms. In addition, positive reappraisal appears to be inversely related to depression. A smaller number of studies have implicated self-blame, rumination, and catastrophizing in state anxiety (Garnefski et al., 2001, Kraaij et al., 2003).
Surprisingly, no published research has examined the role of the cognitive coping processes measured by the CERQ in anger. This is an important omission, as one’s appraisal of one’s ability to cope with provocation is thought to exacerbate the experience of anger (Deffenbacher, 1996). Further, several of the specific coping processes measured by the CERQ (e.g., catastrophization, blaming others, and rumination) are theoretically related to anger (Beck, 1999, Deffenbacher, 1996).
The present study was designed to examine relationships among the cognitive coping styles measured by the CERQ and the experience and expression of anger. It was expected that self-blame, blaming others, rumination, and catastrophizing would be positively related to maladaptive anger and inversely related to adaptive anger control. In addition, we expected that acceptance, refocus on planning, positive refocusing, positive reappraisal, and putting into perspective would be inversely related to dysfunctional anger and positively related to anger control. Depression, anxiety, and stress were also assessed to confirm previously reported findings, largely involving samples outside the United States. Given the paucity of prior research on cognitive coping in anger and the overlap between anger, depression, anxiety, and stress, we did not make predictions about how various CERQ subscales might differentially relate to various forms of negative affect.
Section snippets
Participants
A sample of 362 (286 female, 76 male) participants (Mdn age = 19, M age = 20.46, Range = 18–55) college student volunteers was recruited from undergraduate psychology courses through a combination of classroom announcements and an on-line recruitment system. Racial backgrounds were as follows: 52.8% Caucasian, 42.0% African American, 1.4% Asian/Pacific Islander, 2.5% Hispanic, and 1.1% other. Students received course credit for their participation.
The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (CERQ)
The 36-item CERQ (Garnefski et al., 2001) assesses
Preliminary analyses
Because of previously reported gender differences on the CERQ (Garnefski et al., 2004), a one-way (gender) Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was computed on all variables. A significant multivariate gender effect was found, F(17, 344) = 2.33, p = .00 (η2 = .10). Small univariate gender differences were found on blaming others, rumination, catastrophizing, positive refocusing, refocusing on planning, positive reappraising, and total positive (η2s ranged from .01 to .02). Women scored higher
Discussion
The present findings generally confirmed previously reported relationships among CERQ subscales and negative affect (e.g., Garnefski et al., 2003, Garnefski et al., 2002, Garnefski et al., 2001, Garnefski et al., 2004, Kraaij et al., 2003) but also supported the utility of the CERQ in understanding anger and stress. In addition, results suggest that the presumably adaptive role of acceptance needs to be reconceptualized.
The finding that individual differences in the propensity to experience
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