Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
Review articleApplications of knitted mesh fabrication techniques to scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
Graphical abstract
Highlights
► A knitted mesh improves the mechanical strength of combined or hybrid scaffolds. ► Mechanical properties maintain the microstructure of scaffolds. ► The microstructure induces tissue reconstruction/regeneration.
Introduction
Tissue-engineered scaffolds can be the artificial equivalents of natural extracellular matrices (ECMs) that are used to induce tissue regeneration or replace damaged tissues/organs (Langer and Vacanti, 1993, Griffith and Naughton, 2002). Although the requirements of scaffolds for tissue engineering are multifaceted and specific to the structure and function of the tissue of interest (Yang et al., 2001), ideal scaffolds should have good biocompatibility and biodegradability, highly porous and interconnected microstructures, and suitable mechanical support (Hutmacher, 2000, Yang et al., 2002, Wang et al., 2007). Comparatively, the processing and bioactivity of scaffolds have been paid more attention than others (Harley et al., 2007). Naturally derived materials such as collagen have been used extensively to prepare scaffolds due to their good biocompatibility, hydrophilicity and cell affinity. However, scaffolds constructed entirely of collagen sponge or gel possess poor strength to resist mechanical forces (Bell et al., 1979, Young et al., 1998, Awad et al., 1999, Ng et al., 2004, Nirmalanandhan et al., 2007, Mao et al., 2009). Nowadays, for tissue-engineered scaffolds, the importance of three-dimensional (3D) porous structures has been confirmed to allow in vitro cell adhesion, ingrowth and reorganisation, and provide the necessary space for neovascularisation in vivo (Schmidt and Baier, 2000, O’Brien et al., 2005, Puppi et al., 2010). The role of mechanical properties is being increasingly recognised to provide temporary mechanical support and proper mechanical cues (Leong et al., 2008), and to maintain space for cell ingrowth and matrix formation (Puppi et al., 2010), and rapidly restore tissue biomechanical function (Gloria et al., 2010). Some researchers state that constructing a scaffold that simultaneously possesses optimal mechanical properties, a porous structure and a biocompatible microenvironment, is a more intriguing orientation (Chen et al., 2002, Chen et al., 2008).
A knitted mesh possesses highly ordered loop structures (Wintermantel et al., 1996) and versatile mechanical properties (Quaglini et al., 2008, Yeoman et al., 2010) that can provide sufficient internal connective space for tissue ingrowth (Ouyang et al., 2003). As a unique method of material processing, knitting has shown the potential to provide tissue engineering with many kinds of knitted meshes, or participate in the construction of tissue-engineered scaffolds (Chen et al., 2002). Nowadays, well-designed knitted meshes manufactured from synthetic or biological materials such as polylactide-co-glycolide (PLGA) (Ouyang et al., 2003) and silk (Chen et al., 2008) commonly have unique mechanical properties and have been used to provide improved physical support, either alone to strengthen materials for the patching of soft tissues Clave et al. (2010), or in combination with other types of biomaterials, for the construction of knitted mesh scaffolds (KMSs) (Tatekawa et al., 2010).
Given increasing reports about the applications of a knitted mesh, this review presents a comprehensive overview of the status and future prospects of knitted meshes and KMSs for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
The knitted mesh mentioned in the different papers cited may be associated with different names, e.g. knitted mesh, mesh, network or fabric. Meanwhile, KMSs may also have different terms used by the researchers, e.g. hybrid scaffold (Munirah et al., 2008, Urita et al., 2008, Dai et al., 2010), hybrid construct (Ananta et al., 2009), combined scaffold (Liu et al., 2008, Fan et al., 2009), composite web scaffold (Chen et al., 2003a), composite vascular graft (Xu et al., 2010), composite or 3D scaffold (Pu et al., 2010), etc. The inclusion criteria are based on the knitted structure described in detail in the cited articles.
Section snippets
Fundamentals of knitting
Knitting as an ancient and yet, a fresh technique, has a history of at least 1000 years. The basics of knitting, upon which most of this section is based, have been well documented (Spencer, 1983, Hatch, 1993, Leong et al., 2000). The structure of a knitted mesh is often defined as a highly ordered arrangement of interlocking loops (Wintermantel et al., 1996). The general categories and characteristics of textiles according to the structures and processing are summarised in Table 1. Knitting
Ways to fabricate knitted mesh scaffolds
Theoretically, a knitted mesh can be designed and knitted into many specific shapes to suit the target tissues/organs (Chen et al., 2003a, Dai et al., 2010). To date, many methods have been developed to integrate a mesh into a scaffold; chief among these are one-step moulding and assembly.
Properties of knitted mesh scaffolds
Proper mechanical support has been under essential consideration for the construction of scaffolds (Ng et al., 2005, Leong et al., 2008). Especially for naturally derived materials, various methods have been developed to improve the mechanical performance of scaffolds (Ruijgrok et al., 1994, Ulubayram et al., 2002, Powell and Boyce, 2006, Rezwan et al., 2006, Hillberg et al., 2009). Universally, the mechanical strength should maintain enough spaces for cell ingrowth and functionalisation in
Patches for soft tissues
Various knitted meshes made from synthetic materials, commonly regarded as prosthetic materials such as polypropylene, poly(ethylene terephthalate), and polylactic acid have been designed for the treatment of hernia (Boukerrou et al., 2007), pelvic organ prolapse (Ganj et al., 2009), pelvic floor dysfunctions (Clave et al., 2010), body wall defects (Lamb et al., 1983, Tyrell et al., 1989), and so on. In addition to good mechanical properties, for this kind of application, all of the materials
Conclusion and perspectives
For decades, knitted meshes have been applied surgically to reinforce frail tissues such as hernia (Boukerrou et al., 2007, Clave et al., 2010). Initially, the biomaterials constituting the knitted mesh were regarded as inert (Clave et al., 2010). Gradually, the biocompatibility and tissue-inducing regeneration of biomaterials have become recognised as important characteristics (Silva and Mooney, 2004). The mechanical properties of scaffolds have been shown to significantly affect cell
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely acknowledge Dr. Fergal J. O’Brien, Department of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland & Trinity Centre for Bioengineering, Trinity College Dublin, for his constructive suggestions. This work was financially supported by the Major State Basic Program of China (2005CB623902) and the Major Science and Technology Project of Zhejiang, China (2007C13040).
References (99)
- et al.
Silk matrix for tissue engineered anterior cruciate ligaments
Biomaterials
(2002) - et al.
Study of the biomechanical properties of synthetic mesh implanted in vivo
Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol.
(2007) - et al.
Chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells cultured in a cobweb-like biodegradable scaffold
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.
(2004) - et al.
Ligament regeneration using a knitted silk scaffold combined with collagen matrix
Biomaterials
(2008) - et al.
Culturing of skin fibroblasts in a thin PLGA-collagen hybrid mesh
Biomaterials
(2005) - et al.
Redifferentiation of dedifferentiated bovine chondrocytes when cultured in vitro in a PLGA-collagen hybrid mesh
FEBS Lett.
(2003) - et al.
In vivo optimization of a living dermal substitute employing cultured human fibroblasts on a biodegradable polyglycolic acid or polyglactin mesh
Biomaterials
(1991) - et al.
Repair of articular cartilage defect in non-weight bearing areas using adipose derived stem cells loaded polyglycolic acid mesh
Biomaterials
(2009) - et al.
The influence of structural design of PLGA/collagen hybrid scaffolds in cartilage tissue engineering
Biomaterials
(2010) - et al.
Anterior cruciate ligament regeneration using mesenchymal stem cells and silk scaffold in large animal model
Biomaterials
(2009)
Fibroblast contraction of a collagen-GAG matrix
Biomaterials
Differences in the regulation of fibroblast contraction of floating versus stressed collagen matrices
J. Biol. Chem.
Mechanical characterization of collagen-glycosaminoglycan scaffolds
Acta Biomater.
Effect of genipin cross-linking on the cellular adhesion properties of layer-by-layer assembled polyelectrolyte films
Biomaterials
Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage
Biomaterials
Novel tissue-engineered biodegradable material for reconstruction of vascular wall
Ann. Thorac. Surg.
Bilayered scaffold for engineering cellularized blood vessels
Biomaterials
Engineering functionally graded tissue engineering scaffolds
J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater.
The potential of knitting for engineering composites
Composites Part A
Dental implant induced bone remodeling and associated algorithms
J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater.
The interaction between a combined knitted silk scaffold and microporous silk sponge with human mesenchymal stem cells for ligament tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Autologous extracellular matrix scaffolds for tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Collagen/chitosan porous scaffolds with improved biostability for skin tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Enhanced angiogenesis of porous collagen scaffolds by incorporation of TMC/DNA complexes encoding vascular endothelial growth factor
Acta Biomater.
The effect of mean pore size on cell attachment, proliferation and migration in collagen-glycosaminoglycan scaffolds for bone tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Reduced contraction of skin equivalent engineered using cell sheets cultured in 3D matrices
Biomaterials
In vitro characterization of natural and synthetic dermal matrices cultured with human dermal fibroblasts
Biomaterials
Effect of length of the engineered tendon construct on its structure–function relationships in culture
J. Biomech.
The effect of pore size on cell adhesion in collagen-GAG scaffolds
Biomaterials
EDC cross-linking improves skin substitute strength and stability
Biomaterials
Influence of electrospun collagen on wound contraction of engineered skin substitutes
Biomaterials
Polymeric materials for bone and cartilage repair
Prog. Polym. Sci.
The use of flow perfusion culture and subcutaneous implantation with fibroblast-seeded PLLA-collagen 3D scaffolds for abdominal wall repair
Biomaterials
Experimental characterization of orthotropic technical textiles under uniaxial and biaxial loading
Composites Part A
Biodegradable and bioactive porous polymer/inorganic composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Glutaraldehyde crosslinking of collagen: effects of time, temperature, concentration and presoaking as measured by shrinkage temperature
Clin. Mater.
Effect of collagen matrices on dermal wound healing
Adv. Drug Delivery Rev.
Acellular vascular tissues: natural biomaterials for tissue repair and tissue engineering
Biomaterials
Synthetic extracellular matrices for tissue engineering and regeneration
Curr. Top. Dev. Biol.
Newly developed tissue-engineered material for reconstruction of vascular wall without cell seeding
Ann. Thorac. Surg.
In vivo biocompatibility and mechanical properties of porous zein scaffolds
Biomaterials
Tissue engineering scaffolds using superstructures
Biomaterials
A constitutive model for the warp–weft coupled non-linear behavior of knitted biomedical textiles
Biomaterials
Spacers-at the technical frontiers
Knit. Int.
A poly(lactic acid-co-caprolactone)-collagen hybrid for tissue engineering applications
Tissue Eng. Part A
Autologous mesenchymal stem cell-mediated repair of tendon
Tissue Eng.
Tissue engineering of blood vessels
Brit. J. Surg.
Production of a tissue-like structure by contraction of collagen lattices by human fibroblasts of different proliferative potential in vitro
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
Tissue-engineered skin. Current status in wound healing
Am. J. Clin. Dermatol.
Cited by (65)
Intestinal stents: Structure, functionalization and advanced engineering innovation
2022, Biomaterials AdvancesCitation Excerpt :Cylindrical warp knitting machines consist of a let-off motion (withdraw the yarn from the package, feed it into the corresponding working area, and maintain a certain tension of the yarn), a drawing and winding system, a transmission mechanism, a weaving mechanism and a circular guide bar mechanism. Intestinal stents can be manufactured by using a cylindrical warp knitting machine with an appropriate caliber, density of the needle teeth, and repeat loop forming process [98]. A warp-knitted stent is not easily deformed or disassembled [99].
Biotextile-based scaffolds in tissue engineering
2022, Medical Textiles from Natural ResourcesA fabric reinforced small diameter tubular graft for rabbits’ carotid artery defect
2021, Composites Part B: EngineeringTissue Engineering Concept
2021, Encyclopedia of Smart Materials
- 1
Studying in Dulwich College in UK.