Emissions of lead and zinc from candles with metal-core wicks
Introduction
In many societies, candles have lost their original utilitarian function (supplying lighting) and are used instead to create warmth and nostalgic atmosphere. The glow of a candle can make a room more intimate and comforting and a flickering flame is able to transform ordinary dinner into a romantic occasion. Scented candles glowing in bathrooms and bedrooms transform the room into a pleasurable and fascinating experience. Some people even claim that aromatherapeutic candles can raise the consciousness level and promote a state of tranquility. For centuries, candles have served to enhance the spiritual significance of religious ceremonies. In view of the great popularity of candles for sensual, religious and romantic purposes, they are typically associated with healthy living. Health risks associated with candle fumes have generally been ignored. In fact, release of dangerous levels of lead from the lead and lead alloys in candle wicks was first reported in the United States about a quarter of a century ago. In 1973, the Health Research Group alerted the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) to the fact that approximately 50% of all candles sold in the US had wicks with pure lead cores (HRG, 1974a). This prompted the CPSC to negotiate a voluntary program with the Candle Manufacturing Industry (CMI) for elimination of lead-core wicks in the manufacture and importation of candles. There was no requirement in the agreement, however, for monitoring of candles to ensure that member companies of the CMI and the imported candles were complying with this voluntary program. The voluntary program apparently served to reassure the public and the issue has been dormant since then.
Since the 1970s, candles have grown steadily in popularity in the US. During this decade, the candle industry has grown at an average rate of 10–15% annually and retail sales are expected to reach $2.3 billion in 1999 (NCA, 1999). There are more than 200 commercial, religious and institutional candle makers in the US and a typical company can offer 1000–2000 varieties of candles (NCA, 1999). The growth in the use of candles implies that the US population is increasingly being exposed to candle fumes. This study examined the emissions of lead and zinc from candles sold in the State of Michigan. It was prompted by a recent study by Van Alphen (1999) which found that some candles sold in Australia could release high levels of lead into the home environment. Whether such a source of lead exposure still exists in the US was an original objective of this study.
Section snippets
Methodology
Candles used in the study were bought in stores in various parts of south-east Michigan and were manufactured in the US, Mexico or China. They came in various colors, size ranges (3.5–7-cm diameter) and lengths (5–15 cm). Since most of the candles sold in Michigan were made in other states or imported from foreign countries (especially China, Mexico and Taiwan), one would expect similar products to be available in other parts of the country as well. A metal core is used to provide rigidity to
Results
The release of lead and zinc from 14 different brands of candles with metal-core wicks bought in Michigan is shown in Table 1. The emissions of lead from candles made in the US varied from 1.1 to 66 μg/h, those from Mexico ranged from 0.5 to 5.9 μg/h, while Chinese candles were found to release 1.8–51 μg lead/h. The release of lead from the Chinese candle bought in Australia was much higher — 327 μg/h. We did not investigate the composition of wick metals in this study. One would suspect that
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