Mechanical controls on collision-related compressional intraplate deformation
Introduction
Intraplate compressional structures range from uplift of broad arches and accelerated basin subsidence, involving whole lithospheric buckling, to crustal-scale folding and, by reactivation of pre-existing crustal discontinuities, to upthrusting of basement blocks and inversion of tensional hanging-wall basins. Intraplate compressional features play an important role in the structural framework of many cratons. Such structures can develop (1) in forelands of orogens in response to collisional mechanical coupling of the orogenic wedge with the foreland plate, (2) in back-arc areas during periods of increasing convergence rates between the colliding plates, (3) in oceanic basins where they may be considered as precursors to the development of new subduction zones, (4) along major wrench systems, (5) in multi-directional rift systems in response to stress re-orientation, (6) on passive margins, partly in the projection of intra-oceanic transform faults (Ziegler et al., 1995).
The World Stress Map demonstrates that horizontal compressional stresses can be transmitted over great distances through continental and oceanic lithosphere (Zoback, 1992). Although a number of dynamic processes contribute towards the build-up of intraplate compressional stresses, forces related to collisional plate coupling appear to be responsible for the most important compressional intraplate deformations. These can occur in hinterland as well as in foreland domains of orogenic wedges and at distances of up to ±1600 km from contemporaneous thrust fronts (Ziegler et al., 1995).
The stratigraphic record preserved in sedimentary basins permits to closely date the age of extensional as well as compressional intraplate deformation. Therefore, intraplate deformation plays a pre-eminent role in monitoring the timing of stress changes within continental cratons. As such, the stratigraphic record of collision-related compressional intraplate deformation can contribute towards the dating of orogenic activity affecting a respective plate margin.
The spatial and temporal development of compressional intraplate deformations is controlled by the interaction of fluctuating intraplate stresses and spatial and temporal strength changes of the lithosphere. The strength configuration of the lithosphere primarily depends on its thermo-mechanical structure that can change due to deformation of the lithosphere and its transient thermal equilibration. In many intraplate settings sedimentary basins are characterized by relatively steady state strengths prior to the onset of compressional intraplate deformation (van Wees and Stephenson, 1995; Ziegler et al., 1995). As the onset of compressional basin reactivation reflects a relative increase or a reorientation of the intraplate stress field, intraplate deformations are particularly sensitive recorders of the timing of stress fluctuations. On the other hand, given a relatively constant stress field, spatial variations in the onset of compressional intraplate deformation are controlled by the spatial strength distribution within the lithosphere. However, as the strength of the lithosphere increases during basin inversion, locking of earlier inverted basins can control the progressive propagation of far-field compressional deformations into the interior of continental cratons (Ziegler, 1987; van Wees et al., 1992; Ziegler et al., 1995).
In this paper we summarize the occurrence of collision-related intraplate compressional structures, explore the evolution of the continental mantle-lithosphere, analyze the effects of different modes of rifting and sediment loading on the rheological structure of the lithosphere, and discuss mechanical controls on the development of collision-related compressional intraplate structures in terms of orogenic processes affecting the respective plate margins. We realize that this paper assumes a considerable knowledge of global geology and that it would have been desirable to illustrate all examples discussed. However, this would have expanded this already long paper beyond acceptable limits. Therefore, we have endeavoured to provide the reader with a comprehensive reference list.
Section snippets
Occurrence of collision-related intraplate compressional deformations
Compressional and transpressional intraplate structures can occur at distances of up to 1600 km from a collisional margin, as indicated, for instance, by the Paleocene deformation of the northern Alpine foreland (Ziegler, 1990) and the latest Carboniferous–Early Permian development of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains in the foreland of the Appalachian–Ouachita–Marathon orogen (Ross and Ross, 1985, Ross and Ross, 1986; Kluth, 1986; Stevenson and Baars, 1986; Oldow et al., 1989; Ziegler, 1989).
Oceanic and continental lithosphere
In contrast to continental lithosphere, the lithosphere of the present oceanic basins is young and ranges in age from Middle Jurassic to Recent (Cande et al., 1989). Its crustal parts consist of MORB basalts, sheeted dykes and gabbros; lateral thickness and compositional variations depend on spreading rates, the presence or absence of ridge-centred plumes (N- and E-MORB) and intraplate hotspot activity. The mantle part of oceanic lithosphere is composed of asthenospheric material depleted in
Rifting of continental lithosphere
During rifting, culminating in the opening of new Atlantic-type oceanic basins, the continental lithosphere is stretched and the subcrustal mantle thermally attenuated, particularly in the presence of a mantle plume. Upon termination of rifting activity, or after crustal separation has been achieved and the respective passive margins have moved away from the seafloor spreading axis, the thermally destabilized continental lithosphere re-equilibrates with the asthenosphere (McKenzie, 1978;
Scenarios for fore-arc and foreland compressional deformation
We envisage four collision-related scenarios for the build-up of horizontal intraplate compressional stresses in fore-arc and foreland domains, namely: (1) during the initiation of subduction zones along passive margins or within oceanic basins; (2) during impediment of subduction processes caused by the arrival of a more buoyant crustal element, such as an oceanic plateau, transform ridge, arc or a microcontinent at a subduction zone; (3) during the initial collision of an orogenic wedge with
Mechanisms controlling mechanical coupling of orogenic wedges and forelands
The timing and intensity of intraplate compressional deformations indicate that mechanical coupling between an evolving orogen and its foreland can vary considerably. For instance, for the East Alpine–North Carpathian orogen, intense Senonian/Paleocene foreland deformations indicate strong mechanical coupling between the foreland and the orogenic wedge during their initial collision stage; however, during the Eocene–Early Miocene emplacement of nappes on the foreland, mechanical coupling
Conclusions
Collision-related compressional intraplate structures can be associated with Andean- and Himalayan-type orogens and can occur in back-arc as well as in fore-arc domains. Such deformation, ranging from crustal- to lithosphere-scales, can involve reactivation of pre-existing crustal discontinuities, resulting in the inversion of tensional hanging-wall basins and upthrusting of basement blocks, as well as whole lithospheric buckling, including uplift of broad arches and accelerated subsidence of
Acknowledgements
Wouter Brokx is thanked for his dedicated assistance in preparing the text figures for this paper. Thanks are extended to Alastair Robertson, François Roure, Gérard Stampfli, Jacques Touret and Marjorie Wilson for their constructive comments on an earlier version of this paper. Contribution 981201 of the Netherlands Research School of Sedimentary Geology (NSG).
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