Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Do Police Encounters Increase the Risk for Cardiovascular Disease? Police Encounters and Framingham 30-Year Cardiovascular Risk Score

  • Published:
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Introduction

Despite increased attention to the societal consequences of aggressive policing, the focus on rarer instances of deaths/severe injuries fails to fully capture the day-to-day experiences that racially minoritized groups face during police encounters (PEs). We explored differential vulnerability by race/ethnicity in the relationship between PEs and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk.

Methods

Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we regressed the Framingham 30-Year CVD risk score on a high number of lifetime PEs (6 + among men and 2 + among women). To explore differential vulnerability by race, we added an interaction between PEs and race/ethnicity. We also examined sex- and race and sex-stratified models.

Results

We observed no association between PEs and CVD risk in the sample overall, but the interaction between PEs and race/ethnicity was statistically significant. In race stratified models, we found that higher PEs were associated with a lower CVD risk among Black respondents, whereas among White respondents there was no relationship. In the sex-stratified analysis, reporting higher PEs was associated with lower CVD risk among men, while among women there was no relationship. In sex- and race-stratified models, higher PEs was associated with lower CVD risk among Black men and higher CVD risk among White women, while there was no association among Black women and White men.

Conclusion

The association between PEs and CVD risk depends on race/ethnicity and sex. More work is needed to understand the counterintuitive finding that high PEs are associated with lower CVD risk among Black men.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

Data is publicly available through the Carolina Population Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Code Availability

Code is available upon request and was provided by Dr. Pencina at Duke University and Ken Williams at KenAnCo Biostatistics.

References

  1. Obasogie OK, Newman Z. Police violence, use of force policies, and public health. Am J Law Med. 2017;43(2–3):279–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Ross CT. A multi-level bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011–2014. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(11):e0141854.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Feldman JM, Jarvis TC, Waterman PD, Krieger N. Temporal trends and racial/ethnic inequalities for legal intervention injuries treated in emergency departments: US men and women age 15-34, 2001-2014. J Urban Health. 2016;93(5):797–807.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Krieger N. Police killings, political impunity, racism and the people’s health: issues for our times. Harv Publ Health Rev. 2015;2015(3):1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  5. United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division, United States Attorney's Office Northern District of Illinois. Investigation of the Chicago Police Department. Washington DC: Department of Justice; 2017.

  6. Cooper H, et al. Characterizing perceived police violence: implications for public health. Am J Public Health. 2004;94(7):1109–18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Smiley C, Fakunle D. From “brute” to “thug:” The demonization and criminalization of unarmed Black male victims in America. J Hum Behav Soc Environ. 2016;26(3–4):350–66.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Jason W. Intersections of multiple oppressions: racism, sizeism, ableism, and the “illimitable etceteras” in encounters with law enforcement. Sociol Forum. 2017;32(2):426–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Krieger N, Kiang MV, Chen JT. PD Waterman (2015) Trends in US deaths due to legal intervention among black and white men, age 15–34 years, by county income level 1960-2010. Harv Publ Health Rev. 2014;3:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bor J, Venkataramani AS, Williams DR, Tsai A. Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of black Americans: a population-based, quasi-experimental study. The Lancet 2018;392(10144):302–10.

  11. Mesic A, et al. The relationship between structural racism and Black-White disparities in fatal police shootings at the state level. J Natl Med Assoc. 2018;110(2):106–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Durose M, Langton L. Requests for Police Assistance, 2011, in Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Reports. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2013. http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/rpa11.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan 2023.

  13. Lukachko A, Hatzenbuehler ML, Keyes KM. Structural racism and myocardial infarction in the United States. Soc Sci Med. 2014;103:42–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Sewell AA. The illness associations of police violence: differential relationships by ethnoracial composition. Sociol Forum. 2017;32:975–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Sewell AA, Jefferson KA. Collateral Damage: the health effects of invasive police encounters in New York City. J Urban Health. 2016;93(Suppl 1):42–67.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Sewell AA, Jefferson KA, Lee H. Living under surveillance: gender, psychological distress, and stop-question-and-frisk policing in New York City. Soc Sci Med. 2016;159:1–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Hirschtick JL. Associations between police encounters and mental health status in Chicago (Thesis). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois at Chicago. 2017. https://hdl.handle.net/10027/21953. Accessed 29 Jan 2023.

  18. Geller, A., Policing America's children: police contact and consequences among teens in fragile families. 2017, Princeton University, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Center for Research on Child Wellbeing

  19. Geller A. Youth-police contact: burdens and inequities in an adverse childhood experience, 2014–2017. Am J Public Health. 2021;111(7):1300–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Geller A, et al. Aggressive policing and the mental health of young urban men. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(12):2321–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Futterman CB, Hunt C, Kalven J. Youth/police encounters on Chicago’s south side: acknowledging the realities policing the police. Univ Chic Leg Forum. 2016;2016:125–212.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Theall KP, et al. Neighborhood police encounters, health, and violence in a southern City. Health Aff. 2022;41(2):228–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Alang S, Haile R, Mitsdarffer ML, VanHook C. Inequities in anticipatory stress of police brutality and depressed mood among women. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-022-01390-8.

  24. Pearlin LI, et al. Stress, health, and the life course: some conceptual perspectives. J Health Soc Behav. 2005;46(2):205–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Alexander M, Jim TN, Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. Revised Edition, editors. New York. NY: The New Press; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Boyd RW. Police violence and the built harm of structural racism. Lancet. 2018;392(10144):258–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Cooper HL. War on drugs policing and police brutality. Subst Use Misuse. 2015;50(8–9):1188–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Alang S, et al. Police brutality and black health: setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(5):662–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Alang S, McAlpine DD, Hardeman R. Police brutality and mistrust in medical institutions. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(4):1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Platt T. Crime and punishment in the United States: immediate and long-term reforms from a Marxist perspective. Crime Soc Justice. 1982;18:38–45.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Turner KB, Giacopassi D, Vandiver M. Ignoring the past: coverage of slavery and slave patrols in criminal justice texts. J Crim Justice Educ. 2006;17(1):181–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Robinson MA. Black bodies on the ground: policing disparities in the African American community—an analysis of newsprint from January 1, 2015, through December 31, 2015. J Black Stud. 2017;48(6):551–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Embrick DG. Two nations, revisited: the lynching of black and brown bodies, police brutality, and racial control in ‘post-racial’Amerikkka. Crit Sociol. 2015;41(6):835–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Initiative EJ. Lynching in America: Confrontating the Legacy of Racial Terror, 3rd edition, in Legacy of Lynching. AL: Montgomery; 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Probst JC, Glover S, Kirksey V. Strange harvest: a cross-sectional ecological analysis of the association between historic lynching events and 2010–2014 county mortality rates. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2019;6(1):143–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Plessey V Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (Supreme Court 1896).

  37. Fugitive Slave Act 1850 (P.L. 31-60), 31st Congress of the United States. Washington, DC; 1850.

  38. Congress, U.S. 13th U.S. constitutional amendment. Constitution Annotated 1865 [cited 2018 8/6/2018]; Available from: https://www.congress.gov/constitution-annotated/.

  39. Gates HL, Du Bois WEB, Lewis DL. Black Reconstruction in America: an essay toward a history of the part which black folk played in the attempt to reconstruct democracy in America, 1860–1880. Oxford University Press, Incorporated; 2007.

  40. Harris F, Curtis A. Healing our divided society: investing in America fifty years after the Kerner Report. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press; 2018.

  41. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (Supreme Court, 1968).

  42. Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119 (Supreme Court, 2000).

  43. Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806 (Supreme Court, 1996).

  44. Wallace JM, Jr Bachman JG, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD, Schulenberg JE, Cooper SM. Tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use: racial and ethnic differences among U.S. high school seniors, 1976–2000. Public Health Rep. 2002;117(Suppl 1):S67–75.

  45. American Civil Liberties Union - New York. Stop-and-frisk data. 2019. https://www.nyclu.org/en/stop-and-frisk-data. Accessed 24 Feb 2020.

  46. Tate J, Jenkins J, Kindy K, Lowery W, Alexander K, Rich S. Police-shootings data. The Washington Post, editor. Washington DC. 2020. https://github.com/washingtonpost/data-police-shootings/blob/master/fatal-police-shootings-data.csv.

  47. Alang S. The more things change, the more things stay the same: race, ethnicity, and police brutality. Am J Public Health. 2018;108(9):1127–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Cooper HL, Fullilove M. Editorial: excessive police violence as a public health issue. J Urban Health. 2016;93(Suppl 1):1–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Futterman CB, Mather HM, Miles M. The use of statistical evidence to address police supervisory and disciplinary practices: the Chicago Police Department’s broken system. DePaul J Soc Justice. 2008;1(2):251–91.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ralph L. The qualia of pain: How police torture shapes historical consciousness. Anthropol Theory. 2013;13(1–2):104–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Bivens v. Six Unknown Fed. Narcotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388 (Supreme Court, 1971).

  52. Harlow v. Fitzgerald. 457 U.S. 800 (Supreme Court, 1982).

  53. Civil Rights Act 1871, Section 1983 (P.L. 42-22). United States: 42nd Congress of the United States. 1871

  54. Pierson v. Ray, 386 U.S. 547. (Supreme Court, 1967).

  55. Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223. (Supreme Court, 2009).

  56. City of Escondido, Cal. v. Emmons, 139 S.Ct. 500 (Supreme Court, 2019).

  57. Baxter v. Bracey, 140 S. Ct. 1862. (Supreme Court, 2020).

  58. Hyland SS, Langton L, Davis E. Police Use of Nonfatal Force, 2002–11. Bureau of Justice Statistics. 2015. Available from: https://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=5456. Accessed 29 Jan 2023.

  59. Pearlin LI, LI,. The life course and the stress process: some conceptual comparisons. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2010;65(2):207–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Turner RJ. Understanding Health Disparities: The Relevance of the Stress Process Model. Soc Ment Health. 2013;3(3):170–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Meyer IH, Schwartz S, Frost DM. Social patterning of stress and coping: does disadvantaged social statuses confer more stress and fewer coping resources? Soc Sci Med. 2008;67(3):368–79.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Gelman A, Fagan J, Kiss A. An Analysis of the New York City Police Department’s “Stop-and-Frisk” Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias. J Am Stat Assoc. 2007;102(479):813–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Jacobs D, O’brien RM. The Determinants of Deadly Force: A Structural Analysis of Police Violence. Am J Sociol. 1998;103(4):837–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Kahn KB, et al. How suspect race affects police use of force in an interaction over time. Law Hum Behav. 2017;41(2):117–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Buehler, J.W., Racial/Ethnic Disparities in the Use of Lethal Force by US Police, 2010–2014. Ame J Publ Health, 2016: e1-e3.

  66. DeGue S, Fowler KA, Calkins C. Deaths Due to Use of Lethal Force by Law Enforcement: Findings From the National Violent Death Reporting System, 17 US States, 2009–2012. Am J Prev Med. 2016;51(5):S173–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Pierson E, Simoiu C, Overgoor J, Corbett-Davies S, Jenson D, Shoemaker A, Ramachandran V, Barghouty P, Phillips C, Shroff R, Goel S. A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States. Nat Hum Behav. 2020;4(7):736–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Hoekstra M, Sloan C. Does race matter for police use of force? Evidence from 911 calls. Am Econ Rev. 2020;112(3):827–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Bozeman WP, Stopyra JP, Klinger DA, Martin BP, Graham DD, Johnson JC 3rd, Mahoney-Tesoriero K, Vail SJ. Injuries Associated with Police Use of Force. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2017;84(3):466–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Sugie NF, Turney K. Beyond incarceration: criminal justice contact and mental health. Am Sociol Rev. 2017;82(4):719–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Bagby SPMD, et al. From the Outside In: Biological Mechanisms Linking Social and Environmental Exposures to Chronic Disease and to Health Disparities. Am J Publ Health. 2019;109(1):56–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Korous KM, Causadias JM, Casper DM. Racial discrimination and cortisol output: A meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2017;193(November 2017):90–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Gee GC, Hing A, Mohammed S, Tabor D, Williams DR. Racism and the life course: taking time seriously. Am J Publ Health. 2019;109(1):S43–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Williams DR. Stress and the Mental Health of Populations of Color: Advancing Our Understanding of Race-related Stressors. J Health Soc Behav. 2018;59(4):466–85.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Brotman DJ, Golden SH, Wittstein IS. The cardiovascular toll of stress. Lancet. 2007;370(9592):1089–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Mulder EJ, et al. Prenatal maternal stress: effects on pregnancy and the (unborn) child. Early Hum Dev. 2002;70(1–2):3–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Danese A, McEwen BS. Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiol Behav. 2012;106(1):29–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: central role of the brain. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2006;8(4):367–81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Mattingly DT, Howard LC, Krueger EA, Fleischer NL, Hughes-Halbert C, Leventhal AM. Change in distress about police brutality and substance use among young people, 2017–2020. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2022;237:109530.

  80. McFarland MJ, Geller A, McFarland C. Police contact and health among urban adolescents: The role of perceived injustice. Soc Sci Med. 2019;238:112487.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. McFarland MJ, Taylor J, McFarland CAS. Weighed down by discriminatory policing: Perceived unfair treatment and black-white disparities in waist circumference. SSM - Popul Health. 2018;5:210–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. McFarland MJ, Taylor J, McFarland CAS, Friedman KL. Perceived unfair treatment by police, race, and telomere length: a Nashville community-based sample of black and white men. J Health Soc Behav. 2018;59(4):585–600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Jackson DB, et al. Police stops and sleep behaviors among at-risk youth. Sleep Health. 2020;6(4):435–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Feldman JM, Gruskin S, Coull BA, Krieger N. Police-related deaths and neighborhood economic and racial/ethnic polarization, United States, 2015–2016. Am J Public Health. 2019;109(3):458–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Smith BW, Holmes MD. Police use of excessive force in minority communities: A test of the minority threat, place, and community accountability hypotheses. Soc Probl. 2014;61(1):83–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Langton L, Durose M. Police behavior during traffic and street stops, 2011, special report. 2013, Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice. Available from: http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pbtss11.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan 2023

  87. Pearlin LI. The sociological study of stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1989;30(3):241–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Pearlin LI, et al. The stress process. J Health Soc Behav. 1981;22(4):337–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Link BG, et al. The resources that matter: fundamental social causes of health disparities and the challenge of intelligence. J Health Soc Behav. 2008;49(1):72–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Phelan JC, Link BG. Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health? Ann Rev Sociol. 2015;41(1):311–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Phelan JC, et al. “Fundamental causes” of social inequalities in mortality: a test of the theory. J Health Soc Behav. 2004;45(3):265–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Dowd JJ, Bengtson VL. Aging in minority populations an examination of the double jeopardy hypothesis. J Gerontol. 1978;33(3):427–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Jackson JS, Knight KM, Rafferty JA. Race and Unhealthy Behaviors: Chronic Stress, the HPA Axis, and Physical and Mental Health Disparities Over the Life Course. Am J Public Health. 2010;100(5):933–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Mezuk B, et al. Theory and empiricism: A comment on “Interrogating the environmental affordances model” by Pamplin and colleagues. Soc Sci Med. 2021;285:114281.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Mouzon DM. Relationships of choice: can friendships or fictive kinships explain the race paradox in mental health? Soc Sci Res. 2014;44:32–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Keyes CL. The Black-White paradox in health: Flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. J Pers. 2009;77(6):1677–706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Assari S, Lankarani MM. Association Between Stressful Life Events and Depression; Intersection of Race and Gender. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2016;3(2):349–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Heron M. Deaths: Leading Causes for 2017. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2019;68(6):1–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Benjamins MR, Hirschtick JL, Hunt BR, Hughes MM, Hunter B. Racial disparities in heart disease mortality in the 50 largest U.S. cities. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2017;4:967–75.

  100. Woolf SH, Schoomaker H. Life Expectancy and Mortality Rates in the United States, 1959–2017. JAMA. 2019;322(20):1996–2016.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  101. Havranek EP, et al. Social Determinants of Risk and Outcomes for Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2015;132(9):873–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Williams DR, Leavell J. The social context of cardiovascular disease: challenges and opportunities for the Jackson Heart Study. Ethn Dis. 2012;22(3 Suppl 1):S1-15–21.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Chen Y, et al. Association of Cardiovascular Disease With Premature Mortality in the United States. JAMA Cardiol. 2019;4(12):1230–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  104. D’Agostino RB Sr, et al. General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2008;117(6):743–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Carnethon MR, et al. Cardiovascular Health in African Americans: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circ. 2017;136(21):e393–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Morris AA, et al. Race/Ethnic and Sex Differences in the Association of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease Risk and Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors. J Am Heart Assoc. 2018;7(10):e008250.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Liu K, et al. Healthy lifestyle through young adulthood and the presence of low cardiovascular disease risk profile in middle age: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in (Young) Adults (CARDIA) study. Circ. 2012;125(8):996–1004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Yang Q, et al. Vital Signs Predicted Heart Age and Racial Disparities in Heart Age Among U.S. Adults at the State Level. Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(34):950–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Loria CM, et al. Early Adult Risk Factor Levels and Subsequent Coronary Artery Calcification. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49(20):2013–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Krieger N. Discrimination and health inequities. Int J Health Serv. 2014;44(4):643–710.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Shah R, Braithwaite J. Spread too thin: analyzing the effectiveness of the Chicago camera network on crime. Police Pract Res. 2013;14(5):415–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Fagan J, et al. Stops and stares: Street stops, surveillance, and race in the new policing. Fordham Urb LJ. 2016;43:539.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Harris KM. The Add Health Study: Design and Accomplishment., U.o.N.C.a.C. Hill, editor. Chapel Hill, NC: Carolina Population Center. 2013. Available from: https://addhealth.cpc.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/docs/user_guides/DesignPaperWave_I-IV.pdf. Accessed 29  Jan 2023.

  114. Chen P, Harris KM. Guidelines for Analyzing Add Health Data, N.L.S.o.A.t.A. Health, editor. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina, Carolina Population Center. 2020. Available from: https://addhealth.cpc.unc.edu/wp-content/uploads/docs/user_guides/GuidelinesforAnalysisofAddHealthData_020422.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan 2023.

  115. Tourangeau, R., H.-C. Shin, and N.O.R. Center, National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health - Grand Sample Weight. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Carolina Population Center: Chappel Hill, NC; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Carbonaro R. System avoidance and social isolation: Mechanisms connecting police contact and deleterious health outcomes. Soc Sci Med. 2022;301:114883.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Baćak V, Nowotny KM. Race and the Association Between Police Stops and Depression Among Young Adults: A Research Note. Race and Justice. 2020;10(3):363–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Hirschtick JL, et al. Persistent and aggressive interactions with the police: potential mental health implications. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2019;29:e19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  119. Andersson C, Vasan RS. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in young individuals. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018;15(4):230–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Pencina MJ, et al. Predicting the 30-year risk of cardiovascular disease: the framingham heart study. Circ. 2009;119(24):3078–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. Jeanne TL, et al. High birth weight modifies association between adolescent physical activity and cardiometabolic health in women and not men. Prev Med. 2018;108:29–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Wright EN, et al. The impact of intimate partner violence, depressive symptoms, alcohol dependence, and perceived stress on 30-year cardiovascular disease risk among young adult women: A multiple mediation analysis. Prev Med. 2019;121:47–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Wright EN, Hanlon A, Lozano A, Teitelman AM. The association between intimate partner violence and 30-year cardiovascular disease risk among young adult women. J Interpers Violence. 2018;26(11-12):NP6643–60.

  124. Boehme HM, Cann D, Isom DA. Citizens’ perceptions of over-and under-policing: a look at race, ethnicity, and community characteristics. Crime Delinq. 2022;68(1):123–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Havranek EP, et al. Social Determinants of Risk and Outcomes for Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circ. 2015;132(9):873–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Lawrence E, Hummer RA, Harris KM. The Cardiovascular Health of Young Adults: Disparities along the Urban-Rural Continuum. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci. 2017;672(1):257–81.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  127. Knol MJ, et al. Unpredictable bias when using the missing indicator method or complete case analysis for missing confounder values: an empirical example. J Clin Epidemiol. 2010;63(7):728–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Edwards F, Esposito MH, Lee H. Risk of Police-Involved Death by Race/Ethnicity and Place, United States, 2012–2018. Am J Public Health. 2018;108(9):1241–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  129. Edwards F, Lee H, Esposito M. Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2019;116(34):16793–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Lewis S, Bueno de Mesquita B. Racial differences in hospital evaluation after the use of force by police: a tale of two cities. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(6):1178–87.

  131. Baćak V. and R. Apel, The thin blue line of health: Police contact and wellbeing in Europe. Social Science & Medicine; 2019. p. 112404.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Cobb RJ, Parker LJ, Thorpe RJ Jr. Self-reported Instances of Major Discrimination, Race/Ethnicity, and Inflammation Among Older Adults: Evidence From the Health and Retirement Study. J Gerontol: Ser. 2018;75(2):291–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Holmes TH, Rahe RH. The social readjustment rating scale. J Psychosom Res. 1967;11(2):213–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Graves SL, Wang Y. It’s not that they are big, it’s just that they are black: the impact of body mass index, school belonging, and self esteem on black boys’ school suspension. School Psych Rev. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2022.2072693.

  135. Holbrook C, Fessler DMT, Navarrete CD. Looming large in others’ eyes: racial stereotypes illuminate dual adaptations for representing threat versus prestige as physical size. Evol Hum Behav. 2016;37(1):67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Bailey ZD, et al. Incarceration and adult weight gain in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL). Prev Med. 2015;81:380–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  137. Binkin N, et al. What is common becomes normal: The effect of obesity prevalence on maternal perception. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2013;23(5):410–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Assari S. Health Disparities due to Diminished Return among Black Americans: Public Policy Solutions. Soc Issues Policy Rev. 2018;12(1):112–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Malat J, Mayorga-Gallo S, Williams DR. The effects of whiteness on the health of whites in the USA. Soc Sci Med. 2017;199:148–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Case ADeaton A. Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2015;112(49):15078–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  141. Geronimus AT, et al. Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample. J Health Soc Behav. 2015;56(2):199–224.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  142. Assari S, Burgard S, Zivin K. Long-Term Reciprocal Associations Between Depressive Symptoms and Number of Chronic Medical Conditions: Longitudinal Support for Black-White Health Paradox. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2015;2(4):589–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Motley RO Jr, Joe S. Police Use of Force by Ethnicity, Sex, and Socioeconomic Class. J Soc Social Work Res. 2018;9(1):49–67.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. DeVylder JE, et al. Prevalence, demographic variation and psychological correlates of exposure to police victimisation in four US cities. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2017;26(5):466–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Bey GS, et al. Intersectional effects of racial and gender discrimination on cardiovascular health vary among black and white women and men in the CARDIA study. SSM Popul Health. 2019;8:100446.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  146. Bey GS, Person SD, Kiefe C. Gendered Race and Setting Matter: Sources of Complexity in the Relationships Between Reported Interpersonal Discrimination and Cardiovascular Health in the CARDIA Study. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7(4):687–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  147. Williams DR, Medlock MM. Health Effects of Dramatic Societal Events — Ramifications of the Recent Presidential Election. N Engl J Med. 2017;376(23):2295–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Dixon TL, et al. The Influence of Race in Police-Civilian Interactions: A Content Analysis of Videotaped Interactions Taken During Cincinnati Police Traffic Stops. J Commun. 2008;58(3):530–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. Gaub JE. Understanding Police Misconduct Correlates: Does Gender Matter in Predicting Career-Ending Misconduct? Women Crim Just. 2020;30(4):264–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Sagatov RDF, et al. Recruitment outcomes, challenges and lessons learned: the Healthy Communities Study. Pediatr Obes. 2018;13(Suppl 1):27–35.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  151. Provine DM. Race and inequality in the war on drugs. Annu Rev Law Soc Sci. 2011;7:41–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  152. Messeri P, et al. Examining differences in cigarette smoking prevalence among young adults across national surveillance surveys. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(12):e0225312.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  153. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes statistics report, 2020. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/index.html. Accessed 29 Jan 2023.

  154. Wright JD, et al. Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure in adults aged 18 and over in the United States. Natl Health Stat Report. 2011;35:1-22–4.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Muntner P, et al. Potential US Population Impact of the 2017 ACC/AHA High Blood Pressure Guideline. Circ. 2018;137(2):109–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. Sterne JAC, et al. Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: potential and pitfalls. BMJ. 2009;338:b2393.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  157. Diez-Roux AV. Bringing context back into epidemiology: variables and fallacies in multilevel analysis. Am J Public Health. 1998;88(2):216–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  158. Fox ER, et al. Development and Validation of Risk Prediction Models for Cardiovascular Events in Black Adults: The Jackson Heart Study Cohort. JAMA Cardiol. 2016;1(1):15–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  159. Evans CR, et al. A multilevel approach to modeling health inequalities at the intersection of multiple social identities. Soc Sci Med. 2018;203:64–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Feldman JM, et al. Quantifying underreporting of law-enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture-recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 2017;14(10):e1002399.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  161. Krieger N, et al. Police Killings and Police Deaths Are Public Health Data and Can Be Counted. PLoS Med. 2015;12(12):e1001915.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research uses data from Add Health, funded by grant P01 HD31921 (Harris) from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Add Health is currently directed by Robert A. Hummer and funded by the National Institute on Aging cooperative agreements U01 AG071448 (Hummer) and U01AG071450 (Aiello and Hummer) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Add Health was designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, Center for Social Epidemiology and Population Health, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 1415 Washington Heights, 2649A, SPH Tower, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA

    Kristi L. Allgood, Nancy L. Fleischer & Belinda L. Needham

  2. Institute for Social Research, Population Health Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Jeffrey Morenoff

  3. Department of Sociology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Jeffrey Morenoff

  4. Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Shervin Assari

Authors
  1. Kristi L. Allgood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nancy L. Fleischer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jeffrey Morenoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shervin Assari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Belinda L. Needham
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Manuscript preparation, study conceptualization, data management and analysis were performed by Kristi L Allgood. Additionally, all aspects of the study and review and revision of manuscript were performed by Belinda L Needham. Advice on data analysis, presentation of findings, and manuscript revisions were performed by Nancy L Fleischer. Manuscript revisions and reviews were performed by Jeffrey Morenoff and Shervin Assari.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristi L. Allgood.

Ethics declarations

Ethics Approval

This study was approved under the University of Michigan Institutional Review Board.

Consent to Participate

The data used in this analysis is publicly available secondary data; no additional consent was required from participants.

Consent for Publication

Not applicable.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 72 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Allgood, K.L., Fleischer, N.L., Morenoff, J. et al. Do Police Encounters Increase the Risk for Cardiovascular Disease? Police Encounters and Framingham 30-Year Cardiovascular Risk Score. J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 11, 348–363 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01523-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01523-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation