Abstract
Purpose
Early and accurate diagnosis of bladder cancer (BCa) will contribute extensively to the management of the disease. The purpose of this review was to briefly describe the conventional imaging methods and other novel imaging modalities used for early detection of BCa and outline their pros and cons.
Methods
Literature search was performed on Pubmed, PMC, and Google scholar for the period of January 2014 to February 2018 and using such words as “bladder cancer, bladder tumor, bladder cancer detection, diagnosis and imaging”.
Results
A total of 81 published papers were retrieved and are included in the review. For patients with hematuria and suspected of BCa, cystoscopy, and CT are most commonly recommended. Ultrasonography, MRI, PET/CT using 18F-FDG, or 11C-choline and recently PET/MRI using 18F-FDG also play a prominent role in detection of BCa.
Conclusion
For initial diagnosis of BCa, cystoscopy is generally performed. However, cystoscopy cannot accurately detect carcinoma in situ and cannot distinguish benign masses from malignant lesions. CT is used in two modes, CT and computed tomographic urography, both for diagnosis and for staging of BCa. However, they cannot differentiate T1 and T2 BCa. MRI is performed to diagnose invasive BCa and can differentiate muscle invasive bladder carcinoma from non-muscle invasive bladder carcinoma. However, CT and MRI have low sensitivity for nodal staging. For nodal staging, PET/CT is preferred. PET/MRI provides a better differentiation of normal and pathologic structures as compared with PET/CT. Nonetheless none of the approaches can address all issues related for the management of BCa. Novel imaging methods that target specific biomarkers, image BCa early and accurately, and stage the disease are warranted.
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Abbreviations
- ADC:
-
Apparent diffusion coefficient
- AUA:
-
American urological association
- BCa:
-
Bladder cancer
- 11C:
-
11Carbon
- CEUS:
-
Contrast-enhanced ultrasonography
- CECT:
-
Contrast-enhanced computed tomography
- CIS:
-
Carcinoma in situ
- CLE:
-
Confocal laser endomicroscopy
- CMP:
-
Corticomedullary phase
- CSD:
-
Cumulative incidence of cancer-specific death
- CT:
-
Computed tomography
- CTU:
-
Computed tomographic urography
- 2D US:
-
Two-dimensional ultrasonography
- DCE-MRI:
-
Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging
- DW-MRI:
-
Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging
- FC:
-
Flexible cystoscopy
- 18F-FDG:
-
18Fluorine-2-deoxy-2-fluorodeoxyglucose
- FP:
-
False positive
- HTS:
-
Histological T staging
- LN:
-
Lymph node
- LNMRI:
-
Lymphotropic nanoparticle enhanced MRI
- mpMRI:
-
Multiparametric MRI
- MRI:
-
Magnetic resonance imaging
- MRU:
-
Magnetic resonance urography
- nADC:
-
Normalized ADC
- NaF:
-
Sodium fluoride
- NBI:
-
Narrow band imaging
- NCNN:
-
National comprehensive cancer network
- NMIBC:
-
Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer
- MIBC:
-
Muscle invasive bladder cancer
- NPV:
-
Negative predictive value
- OCT:
-
Optical coherence tomography
- OS:
-
Overall survival
- RC:
-
Radical cystectomy
- PDD:
-
Photodynamic diagnosis
- PET/CT:
-
Positron emission tomography/computed tomography
- PET/MRI:
-
Positron emission tomography/magnetic resonance imaging
- PPV:
-
Positive predictive value
- SPIES:
-
Storz professional image enhancement system
- SUVmax :
-
Maximum standardized uptake value
- 1.5 T:
-
1.5 Tesla
- 3 T:
-
3 Tesla
- TURB:
-
Transurethral resection of bladder
- T1W-MRI:
-
T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging
- T2W-MRI:
-
T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging
- UTS:
-
Ultrasound T staging
- US:
-
Ultrasonography
- WLC:
-
White light cystoscopy
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Acknowledgements
Dr. Thakur (PI), thanks NIH/NCI RO1CA157372, Deans Translational Science Award and the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center Research award for their support in part. Dr. Ebru Salmanoglu is the visiting scholar to the Thakur laboratories and thanks The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) for their fellowship.
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The authors Ebru Salmanoglu, Ethan Halpern, Edouard J. Trabulsi, Sung Kim, and Mathew L. Thakur have no of conflicts of interest.
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Salmanoglu, E., Halpern, E., Trabulsi, E.J. et al. A glance at imaging bladder cancer. Clin Transl Imaging 6, 257–269 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40336-018-0284-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40336-018-0284-9