Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Relative Age Effects Across and Within Female Sport Contexts: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

  • Systematic Review
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

A Correction to this article was published on 17 April 2018

This article has been updated

Abstract

Background

Subtle differences in chronological age within sport (bi-) annual-age groupings can contribute to immediate participation and long-term attainment discrepancies; known as the relative age effect. Voluminous studies have examined relative age effects in male sport; however, their prevalence and context-specific magnitude in female sport remain undetermined.

Objective

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and magnitude of relative age effects in female sport via examination of published data spanning 1984–2016.

Methods

Registered with PROSPERO (No. 42016053497) and using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis systematic search guidelines, 57 studies were identified, containing 308 independent samples across 25 sports. Distribution data were synthesised using odds ratio meta-analyses, applying an invariance random-effects model. Follow-up subgroup category analyses examined whether relative age effect magnitudes were moderated by age group, competition level, sport type, sport context and study quality.

Results

When comparing the relatively oldest (quartile 1) vs. youngest (quartile 4) individuals across all female sport contexts, the overall pooled estimate identified a significant but small relative age effect (odds ratio = 1.25; 95% confidence interval 1.21–1.30; p = 0.01; odds ratio adjusted = 1.21). Subgroup analyses revealed the relative age effect magnitude was higher in pre-adolescent (≤ 11 years) and adolescent (12–14 years) age groups and at higher competition levels. Relative age effect magnitudes were higher in team-based and individual sport contexts associated with high physiological demands.

Conclusion

The findings highlight relative age effects are prevalent across the female sport contexts examined. Relative age effect magnitude is moderated by interactions between developmental stages, competition level and sport context demands. Modifications to sport policy, organisational and athlete development system structure, as well as practitioner intervention are recommended to prevent relative age effect-related participation and longer term attainment inequalities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

  • 17 April 2018

    An Online First version of this article was made available at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40279-018-0890-8 on 13 March 2018. Some errors were subsequently identified by the authors, particularly in regard to Table 4. Although the details pertained to in the table were correct in the original manuscript, it appears that errors were introduced during production of the article. The published article has now been updated with a corrected version of Table 4. This corrected version of the table is also shown below.

Notes

  1. The first quartile corresponds to the first 3 months following the sport-designated cut-off date used to group participants by age. For instance, the first quartile in a system using 1 August as a cut-off would correspond to August, September and October.

  2. An odds ratio (OR) represents the odds, or likelihood, that an event will occur in one group compared to another. In this instance, the OR represents the odds that an athlete will be born in the first quartile (i.e. following a sport cut-off date) compared to the fourth quartile. An OR of one (1.00) would indicate that the outcome under investigation is equal in both groups, while an OR of two (2.00) would indicate the event is twice as likely to be observed in one compared to the other.

  3. Identification of sample age and/or an age-group breakdown were the most common sources of missing information.

  4. Participant numbers were estimated from tables (i.e. overall sample numbers and percentage of participants per quartile were provided, but raw numbers per quartile were not available) by calculating an estimation of the number per quartile using the available values and rounding to the nearest whole number if required. Participant numbers were estimated from figures (i.e. presented in a graph but raw numbers per quartile not provided) by extrapolating from the graph using a ruler and rounding to the nearest whole number if required. Estimated samples within studies are coded and highlighted in Table 2.

  5. Seventeen different countries were named in the literature. However, the total number represented may be larger as some studies reported “international” samples or participants from “across Europe”.

  6. The Cochran Q test [63] assesses true heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. In essence, Q is a measure of dispersion of all effect sizes (individual studies) about the mean effect size (overall pooled effect) on a standardised scale.

  7. A funnel plot is a scatter plot of treatment effect (e.g. odds ratio) set against a measure of study size (e.g. standard error). It provides an initial visual aid to detect bias or systematic heterogeneity. In the absence of heterogeneity, 95% of the studies should lie within the funnel defined by the two diagonal lines. Publication bias is suggested when there is asymmetry in the plot.

  8. ‘Trim and fill’ uses an iterative procedure to remove the most extreme (small) studies from the positive side of the funnel plot, re-computing the effect size at each iteration until the funnel plot is symmetric about the (new) effect size. In theory, this yields an unbiased estimate of the effect size. While trimming yields the adjusted effect size, it also reduces the variance of the effects, yielding a (too) narrow confidence interval. Therefore, the algorithm then adds the original studies back into the analysis and imputes a mirror image for each [65].

  9. The 90th percentile female individual attains adult stature at 20 years of age when a criterion of four successive 6-month increments < 0.5 cm is used [66].

  10. Fifty-seven studies met inclusion criteria for the systematic review; 44 had useable data that could be included in the overall meta- and subgroup analyses.

References

  1. Baker J, Horton S. A review of primary and secondary influences on sport expertise. High Abil Stud. 2004;15(2):211–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Stambulova N, Alfermann D, Statler T, Côté J. ISSP position stand: career development and transitions of athletes. Int J Sport Exe Psychol. 2009;7(4):395–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Cobley S, Abraham C, Baker J. Relative age effects on physical education attainment and school sport representation. Phys Educ Sport Peda. 2008;13(3):267–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Deaner RO, Lowen A, Cobley S. Born at the wrong time: selection bias in the NHL draft. PLoS One. 2013;8(2):e57753.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Helsen WF, Baker J, Michiels S, Schorer J, Van Winckel J, Williams AM. The relative age effect in European professional soccer: did ten years of research make any difference? J Sport Sci. 2012;30(15):1665–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Barnsley RH, Thompson AH, Barnsley PE. Hockey success and birthdate: the relative age effect. Can Assoc Health Phys Educ Recreat J. 1985;51:23–8.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Musch J, Grondin S. Unequal competition as an impediment to personal development: a review of the relative age effect in sport. Dev Rev. 2001;21(2):147–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Wattie N, Cobley S, Baker J. Towards a unified understanding of relative age effects. J Sport Sci. 2008;26(13):1403–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Romann M, Cobley S. Relative age effects in athletic sprinting and corrective adjustments as a solution for their removal. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0122988.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Till K, Cobley S, Wattie N, O’Hara J, Cooke C, Chapman C. The prevalence, influential factors and mechanisms of relative age effects in UK Rugby League. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2010;20(2):320–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Wattie N, Cobley S, Macpherson A, Howard A, Montelpare WJ, Baker J. Injuries in Canadian youth ice hockey: the influence of relative age. Pediatr. 2007;120(1):142–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Baker J, Logan AJ. Developmental contexts and sporting success: birth date and birthplace effects in national hockey league draftees 2000–2005. Br J Sport Med. 2007;41(8):515–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Till K, Cobley S, Morley D, O’Hara J, Chapman C, Cooke C. The influence of age, playing position, anthropometry and fitness on career attainment outcomes in rugby league. J Sport Sci. 2016;34(13):1240–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Cobley SP, Till K. Participation trends according to relative age across youth UK Rugby League. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2017;12(3):339–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Armstrong H. A comparison of the performance of summer- and autumn-born children at eleven and sixteen. Br J Educ Psychol. 1966;36(1):72–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Freyman R. Further evidence on the effect of date of birth on subsequent school performance. Educ Research. 1965;8:58–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Jinks P. An investigation into the effect of date of birth on subsequent school performance. Educ Research. 1964;6:220–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Grondin S, Deshaies P, Nault L-P. Trimestre de naissance et participation au hockey et au volleyball. La Revue Québecoise de l’Activité Physique. 1984;2:97–103.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Barnsley RH, Thompson AH. Birthdate and success in minor hockey: the key to the NHL. Can J Behav Sci. 1988;20(2):167–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Smith KL, Weir PL. An examination of the relative age effect in developmental girls’ hockey in Ontario. High Abil Stud. 2013;24(2):171–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Stenling A, Holmström S. Evidence of relative age effects in Swedish women’s ice hockey. Talent Dev Excell. 2014;6(2):31–40.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Wattie N, Baker J, Cobley S, Montelpare WJ. A historical examination of relative age effects in Canadian hockey players. Int J Sport Psychol. 2007;38(2):178–86.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Helsen WF, Van Winckel J, Williams AM. The relative age effect in youth soccer across Europe. J Sport Sci. 2005;23(6):629–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Lovell R, Towlson C, Parkin G, Portas M, Vaeyens R, Cobley S. Soccer player characteristics in English lower-league development programmes: the relationships between relative age, maturation, anthropometry and physical fitness. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):e0137238.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Lemez S, Macmahon C, Weir P. Relative age effects in women’s rugby union from developmental leagues to World Cup tournaments. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2016;87(1):59–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cobley S, Hanratty M, O’Connor D, Cotton W. First club location and relative age as influences on being a professional Australian Rugby League player. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2014;9(2):335–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Baxter-Jones ADG. Growth and development of young athletes: should competition levels be age related? Sports Med. 1995;20(2):59–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Costa AM, Marques MC, Louro H, Ferreira SS, Marinho DA. The relative age effect among elite youth competitive swimmers. Eur J Sport Sci. 2013;13(5):437–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Edgar S, O’Donoghue P. Season of birth distribution of elite tennis players. J Sport Sci. 2005;23(10):1013–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Giacomini CP. Association of birthdate with success of nationally ranked junior tennis players in the United States. Percept Motor Skill. 1999;89:381–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Romann M, Fuchslocher J. Survival and success of the relatively oldest in Swiss youth skiing competition. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2014;9(2):347–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Müller L, Müller E, Kornexl E, Raschner C. The relationship between physical motor skills, gender and relative age effects in young Austrian alpine ski racers. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2015;10(1):69–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Nakata H, Sakamoto K. Sex differences in relative age effects among Japanese athletes. Percept Motor Skill. 2012;115(1):179–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Delorme N, Boiché J, Raspaud M. The relative age effect in elite sport: the French case. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2009;80(2):336–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Côté J, Macdonald DJ, Baker J, Abernethy B. When ‘where’ is more important than ‘when’: birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise. J Sport Sci. 2006;24(10):1065–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Delorme N, Raspaud M. Is there an influence of relative age on participation in non-physical sports activities? The example of shooting sports. J Sport Sci. 2009;27(10):1035–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Cobley S, Baker J, Wattie N, McKenna J. Annual age-grouping and athlete development: a meta-analytical review of relative age effects in sport. Sports Med. 2009;39(3):235–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Helsen WF, Starkes JL, Van Winckel J. The influence of relative age on success and dropout in male soccer players. Am J Hum Biol. 1998;10(6):791–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Baker J, Schorer J, Cobley S. Relative age effects: an inevitable consequence of elite sport? Sportwiss. 2010;40(1):26–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Haywood K, Getchell N. Life span motor development. 5th ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Malina RM. The young athlete: biological growth and maturation in a biocultural context. In: Smoll FL, Smith RE editors. Children and youth in sport: a biopsychosocial perspective. Dubuque (IA): Brown & Benchmark; 1996.

  42. Tanner J, Whitehouse R, Takaishi M. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children, 1965. Part I. Arch Dis Child. 1966;41(219):454–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Cobley SP, Schorer J, Baker J. Relative age effects in professional German soccer: a historical analysis. J Sport Sci. 2008;26(14):1531–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Till K, Cobley S, Hara J, Cooke C, Chapman C. Considering maturation status and relative age in the longitudinal evaluation of junior rugby league players. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2014;24(3):569–76.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Cobley S, Miller P, Till K, McKenna J. The good and bad of youth sport today: what about the unforseen ethical issues. In: Harvey S, Light RL, editors. Ethics in youth sport: policy and pedagogical applications. Oxfordshire: Routledge; 2013.

  46. Delorme N, Chalabaev A, Raspaud M. Relative age is associated with sport dropout: evidence from youth categories of French basketball. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2011;21(1):120–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Bergeron MF, Mountjoy M, Armstrong N, Chia M, Côté J, Emery CA, et al. International Olympic Committee consensus statement on youth athletic development. Br J Sports Med. 2015;49(13):843–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Côté J, Abernethy B. A developmental approach to sport expertise. In Murphy SM, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 251–306.

  49. Koz D, Fraser TJ, Baker J. Accuracy of professional sports drafts in predicting career potential. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2012;22(4):e64–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Till K, Cobley S, O’Hara J, Morley D, Chapman C, Cooke C. Retrospective analysis of anthropometric and fitness characteristics associated with long-term career progression in Rugby League. J Sci Med Sport. 2015;18(3):310–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Hancock DJ, Adler AL, Côté J. A proposed theoretical model to explain relative age effects in sport. Eur J Sport Sci. 2013;13(6):630–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Baker J, Schorer J, Cobley S, Bräutigam H, Büsch D. Gender, depth of competition and relative age effects in team sports. AJESS. 2009;6(1):1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Schorer J, Cobley S, Bräutigam H, Loffing F, Hütter S, Büsch D, et al. Developmental contexts, depth of competition and relative age effects in sport: a database analysis and a quasi-experiment. Psychol Test Assess Model. 2015;57(1):126–43.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Daniel T, Janssen C. More on the relative age effect. Can Assoc Health Phys Educ Recreat J. 1987;53:21–4.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Schorer J, Cobley S, Büsch D, Bräutigam H, Baker J. Influences of competition level, gender, player nationality, career stage and playing position on relative age effects. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2009;19(5):720–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Delorme N, Boiché J, Raspaud M. Relative age effect in female sport: a diachronic examination of soccer players. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2010;20(3):509–15.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000100.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Albuquerque MF, Fukuda DH, Da Costa VT, Lopes MC, Franchini E. Do weight categories prevent athletes from the relative age effect? A meta-analysis of combat sports. Sport Sci Health. 2016;12(2):133–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Vandenbroucke JP, Von Elm E, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, Mulrow CD, Pocock SJ, et al. Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE): explanation and elaboration. Epidemiology. 2007;18(6):805–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Tompsett C, Sanders R, Taylor C, Cobley S. Pedagogical approaches to and effects of fundamental movement skill interventions on health outcomes: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2017;47(9):1795–819.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Romann M, Fuchslocher J. The need to consider relative age effects in women’s talent development process. Percept Motor Skill. 2014;118(3):651–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Control Clin Trials. 1986;7(3):177–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Cochran WG. The combination of estimates from different experiments. Biometrics. 1954;10(1):101–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Egger M, Smith GD, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315(7109):629–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Malina RM, Bouchard C, Bar-Or O. Maturity-associated variation in growth and performance. In: Malina RM, Bouchard C, Bar-Or O, editors. 2nd ed. Growth, maturation, and physical activity. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics Publishers; 2004.

  67. Ward S, Bélanger M, Donovan D, Caissie I, Goguen J, Vanasse A. Association between school policies and built environment, and youth’s participation in various types of physical activities. J School Health. 2015;85(7):423–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Raschner C, Müller L, Hildebrandt C. The role of a relative age effect in the first winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012. Br J Sport Med. 2012;46(15):1038–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Müller L, Hildebrandt C, Schnitzer M, Raschner C. The role of a relative age effect in the 12th Winter European Youth Olympic Festival in 2015. Percept Motor Skill. 2016;122(2):701–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Albuquerque MR, Franchini E, Lage GM, Da Costa VT, Costa IT, Malloy-Diniz LF. The relative age effect in combat sports: a analysis of Olympic judo athletes, 1964–2012. Percept Motor Skill. 2015;121(1):300–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH. Clinical longitudinal standards for height, weight, height velocity, weight velocity, and stages of puberty. Arch Dis Child. 1976;51(3):170–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Freeman JV, Cole TJ, Chinn S, Jones PR, White EM, Preece MA. Cross sectional stature and weight reference curves for the UK, 1990. Arch Dis Child. 1995;73(1):17–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Güllich A, Emrich E. Considering long-term sustainability in the development of world class success. Eur J Sport Sci. 2014;14(Suppl. 1):S383–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Moesch K, Elbe A-M, Hauge M-LT, Wikman JM. Late specialization: the key to success in centimeters, grams, or seconds (cgs) sports. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2011;21(6):e282–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Baker J, Cobley S, Fraser TJ. What do we know about early sport specialization? Not much! High Abil Stud. 2009;20(1):77–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Gibbs BG, Jarvis JA, Dufur MJ. The rise of the underdog? The relative age effect reversal among Canadian-born NHL hockey players: a reply to Nolan and Howell. Int Rev Sociol Sport. 2011;47(5):644–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Collins D, MacNamara Á. The rocky road to the top. Sports Med. 2012;42(11):907–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Baker J, Janning C, Wong H, Cobley S, Schorer J. Variations in relative age effects in individual sports: skiing, figure skating and gymnastics. Eur J Sport Sci. 2014;14(Suppl. 1):S183–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Saavedra-García M, Aguilar ÓG, Romero JJF, Lastra DF, Oliveira GE. Relative age effect in lower categories of international basketball. Int Rev Sociol Sport. 2014;49(5):526–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Arrieta H, Torres-Unda J, Gil SM, Irazusta J. Relative age effect and performance in the U16, U18 and U20 European Basketball Championships. J Sport Sci. 2016;34(16):1530–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Okazaki FHA, Keller B, Fontana FE, Gallagher JD. The relative age effect among female Brazilian youth volleyball players. Res Q Exerc Sport. 2011;82(1):135–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Müller L, Hildebrandt C, Raschner C. The relative age effect and the influence on performance in youth alpine ski racing. JSSM. 2015;14(1):16–22.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Soomro N, Sanders R, Hackett D, Hubka T, Ebrahimi S, Freeston J, et al. The efficacy of injury prevention programs in adolescent team sports: a meta-analysis. Am J Sport Med. 2016;44(9):2415–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Hancock DJ, Seal K, Young BW, Weir PL, Ste-Marie DM. Examining mechanisms that contribute to relative age effects in pre-pubescent female ice hockey players. Talent Dev Excell. 2013;5(2):59–66.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Weir PL, Smith KL, Paterson C, Horton S. Canadian women’s ice hockey: evidence of a relative age effect. Talent Dev Excell. 2010;2(2):209–17.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Fraser-Thomas J, Côté J. Understanding adolescents’ positive and negative developmental experiences in sport. Sport Psychol. 2009;23(1):2–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Wall M, Côté J. Developmental activities that lead to dropout and investment in sport. Phys Educ Sport Peda. 2007;12(1):77–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Boucher J, Halliwell W. The Novem system: a practical solution to age grouping. Can Assoc Health Phys Educ Recreat J. 1991;57(1):16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Mann DL, van Ginneken PJMA. Age-ordered shirt numbering reduces the selection bias associated with the relative age effect. J Sport Sci. 2017;35(8):784–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Cobley S. Growth and maturation in athlete development: an educational resource for sporting organisations. Canberra (ACT): Australian Institute of Sport; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Cobley S. Talent identification and development in youth sport. In: Green K, Smith A, editors. Routledge handbook of youth sport. Abingdon: Routledge; 2016. p. 476–91.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Cumming SP, Lloyd RS, Oliver JL, Eisenmann JC, Malina RM. Bio-banding in sport: applications to competition, talent identification, and strength and conditioning of youth athletes. Strength Cond J. 2017;39(2):34–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Cumming SP, Lloyd RS, Oliver JL, Eisenmann JC, Malina RM. A renaissance in bio-banding: applications in competition, talent identification, and training. Strength Cond J. (in press).

  94. Till K, Cobley S, O’Hara J, Chapman C, Cooke C. An individualized longitudinal approach to monitoring the dynamics of growth and fitness development in adolescent athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(5):1313–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Cobley S, Till K, O’Hara J, Cooke C, Chapman C. Variable and changing trajectories in youth athlete development: further verification in advocating a long-term inclusive tracking approach. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(7):1959–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Andronikos G, Elumaro AI, Westbury T, Martindale RJJ. Relative age effect: implications for effective practice. J Sport Sci. 2016;34(12):1124–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  97. Lemez S, Baker J, Horton S, Wattie N, Weir P. Examining the relationship between relative age, competition level, and dropout rates in male youth ice-hockey players. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2014;24(6):935–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Wattie N, Tietjens M, Cobley S, Schorer J, Baker J, Kurz D. Relative age-related participation and dropout trends in German youth sports clubs. Eur J Sport Sci. 2014;14(Suppl. 1):S213–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Sabiston C, Pila E, editors. Body-related emotional experiences in sport among adolescent girls: participation outcomes over time. Knowledge transfer papers. In: Sport Canada Research Initiative Conference; 19–20 Sep 2017.

  100. Albuquerque MR, Lage GM, Da Costa VT, Fereira RM, Penna EM, De Albuquerque Moraes LCC, et al. Relative age effect in Olympic Taekwondo athletes. Percept Motor Skill. 2012;114(2):461–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Albuquerque MR, Da Costa VT, Faria LO, Lopes MC, Lage GM, Sledziewski D, et al. Weight categories do not prevent athletes from relative age effect: an analysis of Olympic Games wrestlers. Arch Budo. 2014;10:127–32.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Bidaurrazaga-Letona I, Badiola A, Granados C, Lekue JA, Amado M, Gil SM. Efecto relativo de la edad en futbol: Estudio en un club Vasco profesional. [Relative age effect in soccer: a study in a professional Basque club]. Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación. 2014;(25):95–9.

  103. Brazo-Sayavera J, Martínez-Valencia MA, Müller L, Andronikos G, Martindale RJ. Identifying talented track and field athletes: the impact of relative age effect on selection to the Spanish National Athletics Federation training camps. J Sport Sci. 2017;35(22):2172–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Chittle L, Horton S, Dixon JC. Time out or fast break? The relative age effect in NCAA Division I basketball. J Sport Behav. 2016;39(2):107–25.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Delorme N, Raspaud M. The relative age effect in young French basketball players: a study on the whole population. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2009;19(2):235–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Delorme N. Do weight categories prevent athletes from relative age effect? JSSM. 2014;32(1):16–21.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Dixon JC, Liburdi V, Horton S, Weir PL. An examination of the impact of relative age effects and academic timing on intercollegiate athletics participation in women’s softball. J Intercoll Sport. 2013;6(2):147–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Fukuda DH. Analysis of the relative age effect in elite youth judo athletes. Int J Sport Physiol Perform. 2015;10(8):1048–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Gorski T, Rosser T, Hoppeler H, Vogt M. Relative age effect in young Swiss alpine skiers from 2004 to 2011. Int J Sport Physiol. 2016;11(4):455–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Hancock DJ, Starkes JL, Ste-Marie DM. The relative age effect in female gymnastics: a flip-flop phenomenon. Int J Sport Psychol. 2015;46(6):714–25.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Lidor R, Arnon M, Maayan Z, Gershon T, Côté J. Relative age effect and birthplace effect in Division 1 female ballgame players: the relevance of sport-specific factors. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2014;12(1):19–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Liu W-M, Liu D. A research on the relative age effect among excellent youth female football players in China. J Beijing Sport Univ. 2008;31(1):135–7.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Nagy N, Ökrös C, Sós C. Research on relative age in Hungarian swimming. Phys Cult Sport Stud Res. 2015;68(1):5–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. O’Donoghue P. Relative age in elite tennis. Stud Phys Cult Tourism. 2009;16(4):379–88.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Romann M, Fuchslocher J. Influence of the selection level, age and playing position on relative age effects in Swiss women’s soccer. Talent Dev Excell. 2011;3(2):239–47.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Romann M, Fuchslocher J. Influences of player nationality, playing position, and height on relative age effects at women’s under-17 FIFA World Cup. J Sport Sci. 2013;31(1):32–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Saavedra García M, Gutiérrez Aguilar Ó, Galatti L, Fernández Romero JJ. Efecto de la edad relativa en los mundiales de baloncesto FIBA en cateogrías inferiores (1979-2011). Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte. 2015;15(3):237–42 [Relative age effect in lower categories of FIBA basketball world championships (1979-2011)].

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Saavedra-García M, Gutiérrez-Aguilar Ó, Sa-Marques P, Fernández-Romero JJ. Efecto de la edad relativa en el atletismo español. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte. 2016;16(1):275–85 [Relative age effect in lower categories of FIBA basketball world championships (1979-2011)].

    Google Scholar 

  119. Schorer J, Baker J, Büsch D, Wilhelm A, Pabst J. Relative age, talent identification and youth skill development: do relatively younger athletes have superior technical skills? Talent Dev Excell. 2009;1(1):45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Schorer J, Baker J, Lotz S, Büsch D. Influence of early environmental constraints on achievement motivation in talented young handball players. Int J Sport Psychol. 2010;41(1):42–58.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Schorer J, Wattie N, Baker JR. A new dimension to relative age effects: constant year effects in German youth handball. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e60336.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Sedano S, Vaeyens R, Redondo JC. The relative age effect in Spanish female soccer players: influence of the competitive level and a playing position. J Hum Kinet. 2015;46(1):129–37.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. van den Honert R. Evidence of the relative age effect in football in Australia. J Sport Sci. 2012;30(13):1365–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Vincent J, Glamser FD. Gender differences in the relative age effect among US Olympic Development Program youth soccer players. J Sport Sci. 2006;24(4):405–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Werneck FZ, Coelho EF, de Oliveira HZ, Ribeiro Júnior DB, Almas SP, de Lima JRP, et al. Relative age effect in Olympic basketball athletes. Sci Sport. 2016;31(3):158–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Sutton AJ, Abrams KR, Jones DR, Jones DR, Sheldon TA, Song F. Methods for meta-analysis in medical research. Chichester: Wiley; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Support for this study was received from a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Doctoral Fellowship (K. Smith). The authors would also like to thank Kanchana Ekanayake (The University of Sydney), Allan Fu (The University of Sydney) and Trish Dubé (University of Windsor) for their assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada

    Kristy L. Smith & Patricia L. Weir

  2. Institute for Sport, Physical Activity and Leisure, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK

    Kevin Till

  3. Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland

    Michael Romann

  4. Exercise and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland Campus, 75 East St, Lidcombe, Sydney, NSW, 2141, Australia

    Stephen Cobley

Authors
  1. Kristy L. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patricia L. Weir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kevin Till
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael Romann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Stephen Cobley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen Cobley.

Ethics declarations

Funding

No funding was received for the preparation of this article.

Conflict of interest

Kristy Smith, Patricia Weir, Kevin Till, Michael Romann and Stephen Cobley have no conflicts of interest directly relevant to the content of this article.

Additional information

The original version of this article was revised: Due to errors in the Table 4. Now it has been corrected.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Smith, K.L., Weir, P.L., Till, K. et al. Relative Age Effects Across and Within Female Sport Contexts: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Med 48, 1451–1478 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0890-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0890-8

Search

Navigation