Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The Potential Proconvulsant Effects of Cannabis: a Scoping Review

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Medical Toxicology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

A Correction to this article was published on 02 November 2022

A Correction to this article was published on 21 April 2022

This article has been updated

Abstract

Introduction

Cannabis’ effect on seizure activity is an emerging topic that remains without consensus and merits further investigation. We therefore performed a scoping review to identify the available evidence and knowledge gaps within the existing literature on cannabis product exposures as a potential cause of seizures in humans.

Methods

A scoping review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. The PubMed and Scopus databases were searched over a 20-year period from the date of the database query (12/21/2020). Inclusion criteria were (1) English language original research articles, (2) inclusion of human subjects, and (3) either investigation of seizures as a part of recreational cannabinoid use OR of exogenous cannabinoids as a cause of seizures.

Results

A total of 3104 unique articles were screened, of which 68 underwent full-text review, and 13 met inclusion/exclusion criteria. Ten of 11 studies evaluating acute cannabis exposures reported a higher seizure incidence than would be expected based on the prevalence of epilepsy in the general and pediatric populations (range 0.7–1.2% and 0.3–0.5% respectively). The remaining two studies demonstrated increased seizure frequency and/or seizure-related hospitalization in recreational cannabis users and those with cannabis use disorder.

Conclusions

This scoping review demonstrates that a body of literature describing seizures in the setting of cannabis exposure exists, but it has several limitations. Ten identified studies showed a higher than expected incidence of seizures in populations exposed to cannabis products. Based on the Bradford Hill criteria, delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) may be the causative xenobiotic for this phenomenon.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

References

  1. Bridgeman MB, Abazia DT. Medicinal cannabis: history, pharmacology, and implications for the acute care setting. P T. 2017;42(3):180–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Barrus DG Capogrossi KL Cates SC Gourdet CK Peiper NC Novak SP et al. Tasty THC: promises and challenges of cannabis edibles. Methods Rep RTI Press. 2016;2016.

  3. Monte AA, Shelton SK, Mills E, Saben J, Hopkinson A, Sonn B, et al. Acute illness associated with cannabis use, by route of exposure. Ann Intern Med. 2019;170(8):531–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Vandrey R, Raber JC, Raber ME, Douglass B, Miller C, Bonn-Miller MO. Cannabinoid dose and label accuracy in edible medical cannabis products. JAMA. 2015;313(24):2491–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hammond D. Communicating THC levels and ‘dose’ to consumers: implications for product labelling and packaging of cannabis products in regulated markets. International J of Drug Policy. 2021;91.

  6. Freeman TP, Lorenzetti V. ‘Standard THC units’: a proposal to standardize dose across all cannabis products and methods of administration. Addiction. 2020;115(7):1207–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Gounder K Dunuwille J Dunne J Lee J Silbert P Lawn N. The other side of the leaf: seizures associated with synthetic cannabinoid use. Epilepsy Behav. 2020;104(Pt A):106901.

  8. Kemp AM Clark MS Dobbs T Galli R Sherman J Cox R. Top 10 facts you need to know about synthetic cannabinoids: not so nice spice. Am J Med. 2016;129(3):240–4 e1.

  9. Lapoint JM. Cannabinoids. In: Nelson LS, Howland MA, Lewin NA, Smith SW, Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS, editors. Goldfrank’s toxicologic emergencies, 11e. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education; 2019. p. 1111–23.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Spindle TR, Bonn-Miller MO, Vandrey R. Changing landscape of cannabis: novel products, formulations, and methods of administration. Curr Opin Psychology. 2019;30:98–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Espejo-Porras F, Fernández-Ruiz J, Pertwee RG, Mechoulam R, García C. Motor effects of the non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid cannabidiol that are mediated by 5-HT1A receptors. Neuropharmacol. 2013;75:155–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Morales P, Reggio PH. An Update on Non-CB1, Non-CB2 cannabinoid related G-protein-coupled receptors. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. 2017;2(1):265–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Navarro G, Varani K, Lillo A, Vincenzi F, Rivas-Santisteban R, Raïch I, et al. Pharmacological data of cannabidiol- and cannabigerol-type phytocannabinoids acting on cannabinoid CB1, CB2 and CB1/CB2 heteromer receptors. Pharmacol Res. 2020;159:104940.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Rosenthaler S, Pöhn B, Kolmanz C, Nguyen Huu C, Krewenka C, Huber A, et al. Differences in receptor binding affinity of several phytocannabinoids do not explain their effects on neural cell cultures. Neurotoxicol Teratol. 2014;46:49–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Le Boisselier R, Alexandre J, Lelong-Boulouard V, Debruyne D. Focus on cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2017;101(2):220–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Abuhasira R, Shbiro L, Landschaft Y. Medical use of cannabis and cannabinoids containing products - regulations in Europe and North America. Eur J Intern Med. 2018;49:2–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Zoorob MJ. The frequency distribution of reported THC concentrations of legal cannabis flower products increases discontinuously around the 20% THC threshold in Nevada and Washington state. J of Cannabis Res. 2021;3(1):6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Barrus D Capogrossi K. Cates S. Gourdet C. Peiper N. Novak S. Lefever T. & Wiley J. Tasty THC: promises and challenges of cannabis edibles. RTI Press Occasional Paper 2016.

  19. Morrison PD, Murray RM. Cannabis points to the synaptic pathology of mental disorders: how aberrant synaptic components disrupt the highest psychological functions. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2020;22(3):251–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Bonn-Miller MO, Loflin MJE, Thomas BF, Marcu JP, Hyke T, Vandrey R. Labeling accuracy of cannabidiol extracts sold online. JAMA. 2017;318(17):1708–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Russo EB McPartland JM. Cannabis is more than simply delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2003;165(4):431–2; author reply 3–4.

  22. Russo EB. Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;163(7):1344–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Burrows K, Williams JA. THC intoxication in a 16-month-old child. Paediatr Child Health. 2019;24(5):299–300.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Silliman Cohen R, Barron CE, Goldberg A. Altered mental status in a young child: a case of child neglect. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2019;58(1):123–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Carvalho A, Evans-Gilbert T. The pathophysiology of marijuana-induced encephalopathy and possible epilepsy after ingestion in children: a case series. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2019;16(3–4):16–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Emoto J, Weeks K, Kallail KJ. Accidental acute cannabis intoxication presenting as seizure in pediatrics patients. Kans J Med. 2020;13:129–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Boadu O, Gombolay GY, Caviness VS, El Saleeby CM. Intoxication from accidental marijuana ingestion in pediatric patients: what may lie ahead. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2020;36(6):e349–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bonkowsky JL, Sarco D, Pomeroy SL. Ataxia and shaking in a 2-year-old girl: acute marijuana intoxication presenting as seizure. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2005;21(8):527–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Richards JR, Smith NE, Moulin AK. Unintentional cannabis ingestion in children: a systematic review. J Pediatr. 2017;190:142–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Singh D, Huntwork M, Shetty V, Sequeira G, Akingbola O. Prolonged atrial fibrillation precipitated by new-onset seizures and marijuana abuse. Pediatrics. 2014;133(2):e443–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Fogang YF, Camara M, Mbonda PC, Toffa D, Toure K. Late onset epilepsy associated with marijuana abuse: a case report with MRI findings. Pan Afr Med J. 2014;17:158.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Brust JC, Ng SK, Hauser AW, Susser M. Marijuana use and the risk of new onset seizures. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 1992;103:176–81.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Stockings E, Zagic D, Campbell G, Weier M, Hall WD, Nielsen S, et al. Evidence for cannabis and cannabinoids for epilepsy: a systematic review of controlled and observational evidence. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2018;89(7):741–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Meiri E, Jhangiani H, Vredenburgh JJ, Barbato LM, Carter FJ, Yang H-M, et al. Efficacy of dronabinol alone and in combination with ondansetron versus ondansetron alone for delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007;23(3):533–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. May MB, Glode AE. Dronabinol for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting unresponsive to antiemetics. Cancer Manag Res. 2016;8:49–55.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Beal JE, Olson R, Laubenstein L, Morales JO, Bellman P, Yangco B, et al. Dronabinol as a treatment for anorexia associated with weight loss in patients with AIDS. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1995;10(2):89–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Beal JE, Olson R, Lefkowitz L, Laubenstein L, Bellman P, Yangco B, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of dronabinol for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome-associated anorexia. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1997;14(1):7–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Rintala DH, Fiess RN, Tan G, Holmes SA, Bruel BM. Effect of dronabinol on central neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury: a pilot study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2010;89(10):840–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Lofwall MR, Babalonis S, Nuzzo PA, Elayi SC, Walsh SL. Opioid withdrawal suppression efficacy of oral dronabinol in opioid dependent humans. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2016;164:143–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Narang S, Gibson D, Wasan AD, Ross EL, Michna E, Nedeljkovic SS, et al. Efficacy of dronabinol as an adjuvant treatment for chronic pain patients on opioid therapy. J of Pain. 2008;9(3):254–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Lorenz R. On the application of cannabis in paediatrics and epileptology. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2004;25:40–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Woodward MR, Harper DG, Stolyar A, Forester BP, Ellison JM. Dronabinol for the treatment of agitation and aggressive behavior in acutely hospitalized severely demented patients with noncognitive behavioral symptoms. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;22(4):415–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Kuhlen M, Hoell JI, Gagnon G, Balzer S, Oommen PT, Borkhardt A, et al. Effective treatment of spasticity using dronabinol in pediatric palliative care. European J of Paediatric Neurology. 2016;20(6):898–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Munn Z, Peters MDJ, Stern C, Tufanaru C, McArthur A, Aromataris E. Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach. BMC Med Res Methodology. 2018;18(1):143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Grant MJ, Booth A. A typology of reviews: an analysis of 14 review types and associated methodologies. Health Info Libr J. 2009;26(2):91–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): checklist and explanation. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(7):467–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Guidet C, Gregoire M, Le Dreau A, Vrignaud B, Deslandes G, Monteil-Ganiere C. Cannabis intoxication after accidental ingestion in infants: urine and plasma concentrations of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), THC-COOH and 11-OH-THC in 10 patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2020;58(5):421–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Desai R, Shamim S, Patel K, Sadolikar A, Kaur VP, Bhivandkar S, et al. Primary causes of hospitalizations and procedures, predictors of in-hospital mortality, and trends in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events among recreational marijuana users: a five-year nationwide inpatient assessment in the United States. Cureus. 2018;10(8):e3195.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Heizer JW, Borgelt LM, Bashqoy F, Wang GS, Reiter PD. Marijuana misadventures in children: exploration of a dose-response relationship and summary of clinical effects and outcomes. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2018;34(7):457–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wolfe CE, Wood DM, Dines A, Whatley BP, Yates C, Heyerdahl F, et al. Seizures as a complication of recreational drug use: analysis of the Euro-DEN Plus data-set. Neurotoxicology. 2019;73:183–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Schmid Y, Scholz I, Mueller L, Exadaktylos AK, Ceschi A, Liechti ME, et al. Emergency department presentations related to acute toxicity following recreational use of cannabis products in Switzerland. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;206:107726.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Noble MJ, Hedberg K, Hendrickson RG. Acute cannabis toxicity. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2019;57(8):735–42.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Wang GS, Roosevelt G, Heard K. Pediatric marijuana exposures in a medical marijuana state. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(7):630–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Claudet I, Le Breton M, Brehin C, Franchitto N. A 10-year review of cannabis exposure in children under 3-years of age: do we need a more global approach? Eur J Pediatr. 2017;176(4):553–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Liakoni E Dolder PC Rentsch K Liechti ME Acute health problems due to recreational drug use in patients presenting to an urban emergency department in Switzerland. Swiss Med Wkly. 2015;145:w14166.

  56. Onders B, Casavant MJ, Spiller HA, Chounthirath T, Smith GA. Marijuana exposure among children younger than six years in the United States. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2016;55(5):428–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Anderson SAR Oprescu AM Calello DP Monte A Dayan PS Hurd YL et al. Neuropsychiatric sequelae in adolescents with acute synthetic cannabinoid toxicity. Pediatrics. 2019;144(2).

  58. Graham J Leonard J Banerji S Wang GS Illicit drug exposures in young pediatric patients reported to the National Poison Data System, 2006–2016. J Pediatr. 2020;219:254–8 e1.

  59. Onders B, Casavant MJ, Spiller HA, Chounthirath T, Smith GA. Marijuana exposure among children younger than six years in the United States. Clin Pediatr. 2015;55(5):428–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Patel RS, Mekala HM, Tankersley WE. Cannabis use disorder and epilepsy: a cross-national analysis of 657 072 hospitalized patients. Am J Addict. 2019;28(5):353–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Desai R, Patel U, Sharma S, Amin P, Bhuva R, Patel MS, et al. Recreational marijuana use and acute myocardial infarction: insights from nationwide inpatient sample in the United States. Cureus. 2017;9(11):e1816.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Huff JS, Morris DL, Kothari RU, Gibbs MA, Emergency Medicine Seizure Study G. Emergency department management of patients with seizures: a multicenter study. Acad Emerg Med. 2001;8(6):622–8.

  63. Krumholz A, Grufferman S, Orr ST, Stern BJ. Seizures and seizure care in an emergency department. Epilepsia. 1989;30(2):175–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Pallin DJ, Goldstein JN, Moussally JS, Pelletier AJ, Green AR, Camargo CA Jr. Seizure visits in US emergency departments: epidemiology and potential disparities in care. Int J Emerg Med. 2008;1(2):97–105.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Schoenenberger RA, Heim SM. Indication for computed tomography of the brain in patients with first uncomplicated generalised seizure. BMJ. 1994;309(6960):986–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Zack MM, Kobau R. National and state estimates of the numbers of adults and children with active epilepsy - United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66(31):821–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Fiest KM, Sauro KM, Wiebe S, Patten SB, Kwon CS, Dykeman J, et al. Prevalence and incidence of epilepsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of international studies. Neurology. 2017;88(3):296–303.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Camfield P, Camfield C. Incidence, prevalence and aetiology of seizures and epilepsy in children. Epileptic Disord. 2015;17(2):117–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. ElSohly MA, Ross SA, Mehmedic Z, Arafat R, Yi B, Banahan BF 3rd. Potency trends of delta9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980–1997. J Forensic Sci. 2000;45(1):24–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Stambouli H, El Bouri A, Bouayoun T. Évolution de la teneur en Δ9-THC dans les saisies de résines de cannabis au Maroc de 2005 à 2014. Toxicol Anal et Clin. 2016;28(2):146–52.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Ham MT, Loskota WJ, Lomax P. Acute and chronic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on seizures in the gerbil. Euro J Pharmacol. 1975;31(1):148–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Consroe P, Martin AR, Fish BS. Use of a potential rabbit model for structure–behavioral activity studies of cannabinoids. J Med Chem. 1982;25(5):596–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Johnson DD McNeill JR Crawford RD Wilcox WC Epileptiform seizures in domestic fowl. V. The anticonvulsant activity of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 1975;53(6):1007–13.

  74. Chiu P, Olsen DM, Borys HK, Karler R, Turkanis SA. The influence of cannabidiol and delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol on cobalt epilepsy in rats. Epilepsia. 1979;20(4):365–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Colasanti BK, Lindamood C 3rd, Craig CR. Effects of marihuana cannabinoids on seizure activity in cobalt-epileptic rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1982;16(4):573–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Turkanis SA, Karler R. Central excitatory properties of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its metabolites in iron-induced epileptic rats. Neuropharmacol. 1982;21(1):7–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Karler R, Calder L, Sangdee P, Turkanis S. Interaction between delta-9-tetrahydro-cannabinol and kindling by electrical and chemical stimuli in mice. Neuropharmacol. 1984;23(11):1315–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Turkanis SA, Karler R. Electrophysiologic properties of the cannabinoids. J Clin Pharmacol. 1981;21(S1):449S-S463.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Wada JA, Wake A, Sato M, Corcoran ME. Antiepileptic and prophylactic effects of tetrahydrocannabinols in amygdaloid kindled cats. Epilepsia. 1975;16(3):503–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Sofia RD, Solomon TA, Barry H 3rd. Anticonvulsant activity of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol compared with three other drugs. Eur J Pharmacol. 1976;35(1):7–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Culler CA, Vigani A. Successful treatment of a severe cannabinoid toxicity using extracorporeal therapy in a dog. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio). 2019;29(6):674–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Girling SJ, Fraser MA. Cannabis intoxication in three Green iguanas (Iguana iguana). J Small Anim Pract. 2011;52(2):113–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Brutlag A, Hommerding H. Toxicology of marijuana, synthetic cannabinoids, and cannabidiol in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2018;48(6):1087–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Breivogel CS, Wells JR, Jonas A, Mistry AH, Gravley ML, Patel RM, et al. Comparison of the neurotoxic and seizure-inducing effects of synthetic and endogenous cannabinoids with delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res. 2020;5(1):32–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Malyshevskaya O, Aritake K, Kaushik MK, Uchiyama N, Cherasse Y, Kikura-Hanajiri R, et al. Natural ((9)-THC) and synthetic (JWH-018) cannabinoids induce seizures by acting through the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):10516.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Whalley BJ, Lin H, Bell L, Hill T, Patel A, Gray RA, et al. Species-specific susceptibility to cannabis-induced convulsions. Br J Pharmacol. 2019;176(10):1506–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Kaczor EE, Mathews B, LaBarge K, Chapman BP, Carreiro S. Cannabis product ingestions in pediatric patients: ranges of exposure, effects, and outcomes. J Med Toxicol. 2021;17(4):386–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Fedak KM, Bernal A, Capshaw ZA, Gross S. Applying the Bradford Hill criteria in the 21st century: how data integration has changed causal inference in molecular epidemiology. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2015;12(1):14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Kreitzer AC. Neurotransmission: emerging roles of endocannabinoids. Curr Biol. 2005;15(14):R549–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Katona I, Freund TF. Endocannabinoid signaling as a synaptic circuit breaker in neurological disease. Nat Med. 2008;14(9):923–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Wiley JL, Lefever TW, Marusich JA, Grabenauer M, Moore KN, Huffman JW, et al. Evaluation of first generation synthetic cannabinoids on binding at non-cannabinoid receptors and in a battery of in vivo assays in mice. Neuropharmacol. 2016;110:143–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Schneir AB, Baumbacher T. Convulsions associated with the use of a synthetic cannabinoid product. J Med Toxicol. 2012;8(1):62–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Funada M, Takebayashi-Ohsawa M. Synthetic cannabinoid AM2201 induces seizures: involvement of cannabinoid CB1 receptors and glutamatergic transmission. Toxicol and Appl Pharmacol. 2018;338:1–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Chen HY, Albertson TE, Olson KR. Treatment of drug-induced seizures. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;81(3):412–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Holtkamp M. Pharmacotherapy for refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus in adults. Drugs. 2018;78(3):307–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Thomas AA, Dickerson-Young T, Mazor S. Unintentional pediatric marijuana exposures at a tertiary care children’s hospital in Washington State: a retrospective review. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2021;37(10):e594–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Thomas AA, Mazor S. Unintentional marijuana exposure presenting as altered mental status in the pediatric emergency department: a case series. J Emerg Med. 2017;53(6):e119–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Toce MS, Farias M, Powell AJ, Daly KP, Vargas SO, Burns MM. Myocardial infarct after marijuana inhalation in a 16-year-old adolescent boy. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2019;22(1):80–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Wadhwa A, Bal S, Imoukhuede O, Doshi D. Shattering the carotids. Stroke. 2021;52(5):e160–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Catherine Carr, medical research librarian, for her assistance with the literature search.

Funding

This work was partially funded by NIH/NIDA K23DA045242 (PI: Carreiro).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

    Eric E. Kaczor

  2. Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA

    Kevin Greene & Stephanie Carreiro

  3. Department of Emergency Medicine, Maine Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Portland, ME, USA

    Jennifer Zacharia & Mark Neavyn

  4. Departments of Neurology and Emergency Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA

    Laura Tormoehlen

Authors
  1. Eric E. Kaczor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kevin Greene
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jennifer Zacharia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Laura Tormoehlen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mark Neavyn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Stephanie Carreiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eric E. Kaczor.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Dr. EK, Dr. KG, Dr. JZ, and Dr. MN declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Dr. LT has received honoraria for speaking and consultation fees for expert testimony both unrelated to this work.

Dr. SC is funded by the NIH/NIDA (K23DA045242).

Additional information

Supervising Editor: Michael Hodgman, MD.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

The original version of this article was revised: The surname of coauthor Stephanie Carreiro was spelled incorrectly (as “Carriero”) in this article as originally published.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 108 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kaczor, E.E., Greene, K., Zacharia, J. et al. The Potential Proconvulsant Effects of Cannabis: a Scoping Review. J. Med. Toxicol. 18, 223–234 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-022-00886-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-022-00886-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation