Abstract
In this essay we develop and argue for the adoption of a more comprehensive model of research ethics than is included within current conceptions of responsible conduct of research (RCR). We argue that our model, which we label the ethical dimensions of scientific research (EDSR), is a more comprehensive approach to encouraging ethically responsible scientific research compared to the currently typically adopted approach in RCR training. This essay focuses on developing a pedagogical approach that enables scientists to better understand and appreciate one important component of this model, what we call intrinsic ethics. Intrinsic ethical issues arise when values and ethical assumptions are embedded within scientific findings and analytical methods. Through a close examination of a case study and its application in teaching, namely, evaluation of climate change integrated assessment models, this paper develops a method and case for including intrinsic ethics within research ethics training to provide scientists with a comprehensive understanding and appreciation of the critical role of values and ethical choices in the production of research outcomes.
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Notes
Our distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic parallels to some extent Ellis’ (2001) drawing of the distinction between intrinsic/extrinsic property in science. Our conception, while applied to ethics, does not mirror the intrinsic/extrinsic value distinction.
The global carbon cycle in this context describes the processes governing the budget of carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere, including exchanges among the major carbon pools active on time scales relevant to contemporary climate change. These carbon pools are the atmosphere, the terrestrial biosphere, the oceans, and fossil fuel reservoirs (Schlesinger 1997). Since carbon dioxide and methane, both carbon-containing gases, are the principal drivers of anthropogenic climate change, understanding the carbon cycle and potential methods of managing the carbon cycle are important topics in the study of climate change (IPCC 2007).
These freely available materials are located online at: http://rockethics.psu.edu/education/environment.
The online resources presented are: American Statistical Association Ethical Guidelines for Statistical Practice, http://www.tcnj.edu/~asaethic/asagui.html; The Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science, http://onlineethics.org/index.html; Ethics of Climate Change, http://ClimateEthics.org.
The MOC is part of a global-scale ocean circulation system also referred to as the “conveyor belt circulation” (Broecker 1991). In the North Atlantic, this circulation system consists of warm surface waters flowing from the tropics to higher latitudes. Due to heat loss to the atmosphere and brine rejection due to sea ice formation, some water parcels become denser than the underlying water masses and form deep waters. These deep waters then return southwards to the tropics (and flow further south). The overall flow problem in the North Atlantic is hence a meridional overturning, hence the name MOC. The MOC may collapse in response to anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Meehl et al. 2007). An MOC collapse is predicted to pose special risks to natural and human systems (Schneider et al. 2007).
Unconstrained optimization and threshold constraints are two commonly used means for determining optimal climate management paths. While perhaps not the intention of the papers, the decision to include a probabilistic optimization constraints such as the MOC constraint in McInerney and Keller (2008), where Nordhaus (1992) does not, was recognized by the students as a difference in embedding values and not just as a difference in the descriptive capacity between the assessments.
We also hope this typology will be the beginning of additional reflection on the role of intrinsic ethics by philosophers of science and science studies theorists.
There are many significant areas where intrinsic ethics may not have as apparent a link to or impact on society, as is the case in addressing climate change issues. For example, the choice of dose–response curves for toxicity studies can lead to conclusions that are false in significant ways, such as assuming a progressively higher dose causes higher risk. Where in fact, low exposure to some chemicals can be as problematic as high exposure, but medium exposure shows little problem. What is significant about an analysis of intrinsic ethics, in addition to forcing a questioning of assumptions, is that it requires one to also consider whether what is left absent in a scientific or engineering description of a system has consequences. For example, in the case of airbag manufacturers, air bags were engineered to prevent an unbelted 180-pound man from major injury or death in a head-on collision. Yet, what was left absent in the initial analysis was what such a powerful airbag safety system could do to a 100-pound woman or a 45-pound child.
Passed in August, 2007, the America Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Provide Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science Act (America COMPETES), was designed to ensure competitive investments by the United States in science and engineering research and in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. The Act focuses on (a) increasing research investment; (b) strengthening educational opportunities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics from elementary through graduate school; and (c) developing an innovative infrastructure (United States 2007).
For the purposes of this paper we use this phrase to refer to those who study science from a variety of disciplinary and interdisciplinary perspective including philosophy, anthropology, history, and sociology of science as well as science, technology, and society theorists.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the National Science Foundation’s Ethics in Engineering and Science Education grant (0529766) for its generous support. Any opinion and potential errors are, of course, attributed to the authors and not to the funding agency. The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful comments.
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Schienke, E.W., Baum, S.D., Tuana, N. et al. Intrinsic Ethics Regarding Integrated Assessment Models for Climate Management. Sci Eng Ethics 17, 503–523 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-010-9209-3
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-010-9209-3