Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Generating examples: focus on processes

  • Original Article
  • Published:
ZDM Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Constructing an example can be a rich and complex activity, interesting to investigate mathematical thinking and with many potentialities in mathematics education. In this article, I analyse processes involved in example generation, with particular emphasis on production and transformation of signs representing mathematical objects and on generation of inferences. The richness and complexity of these processes will also be shown through the notions of prototypes, concept image and concept definition. This investigation reveals aspects that are significant both in education and for the reflection on cognitive and cultural aspects of mathematical thinking.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alcock, L. (2004). Uses of examples objects in proving. In M. Johnsen Høines & A. Berit Fuglestad (Eds.), Proceedings of the 28th conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 2, pp. 17–24). Bergen: Bergen University College.

  • Alcock, L., & Inglis, M. (2009). Representation systems and undergraduate proof production: a comment on Weber. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 28, 209–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antonini, S. (2003). Non-examples and proof by contradiction. In N. A. Pateman, B. J. Dougherty, & J. Zilliox (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2003 joint meeting of PME and PMENA (Vol. 2, pp. 49–55). Honolulu, Hawai’i: CRDG College of Education, University of Hawai’i.

  • Antonini, S. (2006). Graduate students’ processes in generating examples of mathematical objects. In J. Novotnà, H. Moarovà, M. Kràtkà, & N. Stelìchovà (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 2, pp. 57–64). Prague: Charles University.

  • Antonini, S. (2010). A model to analyse argumentations supporting impossibilities in mathematics. In Proceedings of the 34th conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 2, pp. 153–160). Belo Horizonte: PME.

  • Antonini, S., Furinghetti, F., Morselli, F., & Tosetto, E. (2007). University students generating examples in real analysis: where is the definition? In D. Pitta-Pantazi & G. Philippou (Eds.), Proceedings of the fifth congress of the European Society for research in mathematics education, CERME 5 (pp. 2241–2249). Larnaca, Cyprus. http://ermeweb.free.fr/CERME5b/.

  • Antonini, S., & Mariotti, M. A. (2008). Indirect proof: what is specific to this way of proving? Zentralblatt für Didaktik der Mathematik, 40(3), 401–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arzarello, F. (2006). Semiosis as a multimodal process. Relime, Número Especial, 267–299.

  • Balacheff, N. (1987). Processus de preuve et situations de validation. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 18(2), 147–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bills, L., Mason, J., Watson, A., & Zaslavsky, O. (2006). Research Forum 02. Exemplification: the use of examples in teaching and learning mathematics). In J. Novotnà, H. Moarovà, M. Kràtkà, & N. Stelìchovà (Eds.), Proceedings of the 30th conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 1, pp. 25–153). Prague: Charles University.

  • Boero, P. (2001). Transformation and anticipation as key processes in algebraic problem solving. In R. Sutherland, T. Rojano, A. Bell, & R. Lins (Eds.), Perspectives on school algebra (pp. 99–119). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boero, P., Garuti, R., & Lemut, E. (1999). About the generation of conditionality of statements and its links with proving. In O. Zaslavski (Ed.), Proceedings of the 23rd conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 2, pp. 137–144). Haifa: PME.

  • Bratina, T. A. (1986). Can your students give examples? Mathematics Teacher, 79, 524–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Capobianco, M., & Molluzzo, J. C. (1978). Examples and counterexamples in graph theory. New York: North Holland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, M. P., & Bloom, I. (2005). The cyclic nature of problem solving: an emergent multidimensional problem-solving framework. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 58(1), 45–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlberg, R. P., & Housman, D. L. (1997). Facilitating learning events through example generation. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 33, 283–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duval, R. (1995). Sémiosis et Pensée Humaine. Bern: Peter Lang.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A., & Alcock, L. (2009). How do undergraduate students navigate their example spaces? In Proceedings of the 13th annual conference on research in undergraduate mathematics education. http://sigmaa.maa.org/rume/crume2010/Archive/Edwards.pdf.

  • Furinghetti, F., Morselli, F., & Antonini, S. (2011). To exist or not to exist: example generation in real analysis. Zentralblatt für Didaktik der Mathematik (this issue).

  • Gelbaum, B. R., & Olmsted, J. M. H. (1964). Counterexamples in analysis. San Francisco: Holden-Day.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelbaum, B. R., & Olmsted, J. M. H. (1990). Theorems and counterexamples in Mathematics. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harel, G., & Sowder, L. (1998). Students’ proof schemes: results from exploratory studies. In A. Schoenfeld, J. Kaput, & E. Dubinsky (Eds.), Research on collegiate mathematics education (Vol. 3, pp. 234–283). Providence: American Mathematical Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazzan, O., & Zazkis, R. (1997). Constructing knowledge by constructing examples for mathematical concepts. In E. Pehkonen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 21st conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 4, pp. 299–306). Helsinki: University of Helsinki-Lahti Research and Training Center.

  • Hintikka, J., & Remes, U. (1974). The method of analysis: Its geometrical origin and its general significance. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iannone, P., Inglis, M., Mejia-Ramos, J. P., Siemons, J., & Weber, K. (2009). How do undergraduate students generate examples of mathematical concepts? In M. Tzekaki, M. Kaldrimidou, & H. Sakonidis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 33rd conference of the international group for the psychology of mathematics education (Vol. 3, pp. 217–224). Thessaloniki: PME.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khaleelulla, S. M. (1982). Counterexamples in topological vector spaces. Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakatos, I. (1976). Proofs and refutations: the logic of mathematical discovery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J., & Klymchuk, S. (2009). Using Counter-examples in calculus. London: Imperial College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Presmeg, N. (1992). Prototypes, metaphors, metonymies and imaginative rationality in high school mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 23, 595–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romano, J. P., & Siegel, A. F. (1986). Counterexamples in probability and statistics. Monterey: Wadsworth & Brooks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosch, E. (1977). Human categorization. In N. Warren (Ed.), Studies in cross-cultural psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 1–49). London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: problem solving, metacognition and sense making in mathematics. In D. A. Grows (Ed.), Handbook of research in mathematics learning and teaching (pp. 334–370). New York: MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simon, A. M. (1996). Beyond inductive and deductive reasoning: the search for a sense of knowing. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 30, 197–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steen, L. A., & Seebach, J. A, Jr. (1978). Counterexamples in topology. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoyanov, J. M. (1987). Counterexamples in probability. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tall, D. O., & Vinner, S. (1981). Concept image and concept definition with particular reference to limits and continuity. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12, 151–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A., & Mason, J. (2005). Mathematics as a constructive activity: learners generating examples. Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, K. (2009). How syntactic reasoners can develop understanding, evaluate conjectures, and generate counterexamples in advanced mathematics. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 28, 200–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zaslavsky, O., & Peled, I. (1996). Inhibiting factors in generating examples by mathematics teachers and student-teachers: The case of binary operation. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 27(1), 67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zazkis, R., & Leikin, R. (2007). Generating examples: From pedagogical tool to a research tool. For the Learning of Mathematics, 27(2), 15–21.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Anna Baccaglini-Frank (University of Siena, Italy, and Institute of Education, University of London, UK) for polishing the English of the present paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Samuele Antonini.

Additional information

This article is dedicated to the memory of Giorgio Tomaso Bagni (1958–2009), researcher, teacher, and friend.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Antonini, S. Generating examples: focus on processes. ZDM Mathematics Education 43, 205–217 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-011-0317-6

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-011-0317-6

Keywords

Navigation