Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Why Early Confucianism Cannot Generate Democracy

  • Published:
Dao Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A central issue in Chinese philosophy today is the relationship between Confucianism and democracy. While some political figures have argued that Confucian values justify non-democratic forms of government, many scholars have argued that Confucianism can provide justification for democracy, though this Confucian democracy will differ substantially from liberal democracy. These scholars believe it is important for Chinese culture to develop its own conception of democracy using Confucian values, drawn mainly from Kongzi (Confucius) and Mengzi (Mencius), as the basis. This essay describes some obstacles to this form of Confucian democracy. It argues that considering the political philosophies of Kongzi and Mengzi in the context of their views on personal cultivation reveals that they oppose some of the central assumptions of democracy. They do not trust the public to make good decisions, and advocate government for the people, but not by the people. These philosophies alone cannot generate democracy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ackerly, Brooke. 2005. “Is Liberalism the Only Way toward Democracy? Confucianism and Democracy.” Political Theory 33.4: 547–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ames, Roger. 1988. “Rites as Rights: The Confucian Alternative.” In Human Rights and the World’s Religions. Ed. by Leroy S. Rouner. South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press

  • Analects 論語集釋.1997. Ed. by Cheng Shude 程樹德. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局.

  • Angle, Stephen. 2002. Human Rights and Chinese Thought: A Cross-Cultural Inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bai, Tongdong 白彤东. 2007. “A Confucian Version of Limited Democracy 一個儒家版本的有限民主.” Tracing the Way 原道: 200–217.

  • Bauer, Joanne and Daniel Bell. 2002. The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, Daniel. 1999. “Democracy with Chinese Characteristics: A Political Proposal for the Post-Communist Era.” Philosophy East and West 49.4: 451–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai, Renhou 蔡仁厚. 1987. The Modern Significance of Confucian Thought 儒家思想的現代意義.Taibei: Wenjin 文津.

  • Chan, Joseph. 2007. “Democracy and Meritocracy: Toward a Confucian Perspective.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 34.2: 179–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, Wejen. 1998. “Confucian Theory of Norms and Human Rights.” In de Bary and Tu 1998.

  • Cheng, Chung-ying. 1998. “Transforming Confucian Virtues into Human Rights: A Study of Human Agency and Potency in Confucian Ethics.” In de Bary and Tu 1998.

  • Ching, Julia. 1998. “Human Rights: A Valid Chinese Concept?” In de Bary and Tu 1998.

  • Cline, Erin. 2003. “Autonomy or Appropriateness? Contrasting Selves in The Democracy of the Dead.” Southwest Philosophy Review 19.1: 179–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Bary, Wm. Theodore. 1998. “Introduction.” In de Bary and Tu 1998.

  • de Bary, Wm. Theodore and Tu Wei-ming, eds. 1998. Confucianism and Human Rights. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everdell, William. 1983. The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gewirth, Alan. 1978. Reason and Morality. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 1996. The Community of Rights. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, David and Roger Ames. 1999. The Democracy of the Dead. Chicago: Open Court.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2003. “A Pragmatist Understanding of Confucian Democracy.” In Confucianism for the Modern World. Ed. by Daniel Bell and Hahm Chaibong. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Hu, Shaohua. 2000. “Confucianism and Western Democracy.” In China and Democracy: The Prospect for a Democratic China. Ed. by Zhao Suisheng. New York: Routledge.

  • Huang, Yong. 2008. “Neo-Confucian Hermeneutics at Work: Cheng Yi’s Philosophical Interpretation of Analects 8.9 and 17.3.” Harvard Theological Review 101.2: 169–201

  • Hutton, Eric. 2008. “Un-Democratic Values in Plato and Xunzi.” In Polishing the Chinese Mirror: Essays in Honor of Henry Rosemont, Jr. Ed. by Marthe Chandler and Ronnie Littlejohn. New York: Global Scholarly Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanhoe, Philip J. 2000. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. Indianapolis: Hackett.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2002. Ethics in the Confucian Tradition: The Thought of Mengzi and W ang Yangming. Indianapolis: Hackett

  • Kennedy, John James. 2002. “The Face of ‘Grassroots Democracy’ in Rural China: Real versus Cosmetic Elections.” Asian Survey 42.3: 456–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laborde, Cecile and John Maynor, eds. 2008. Republicanism and Political Theory. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Chenyang. 1997. “Confucian Value and Democratic Value.” Journal of Value Inquiry 31: 183–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, Jinquan 李錦全. 2006. “Kongzi’s Developmental Ideal and Choosing Paths of Modernization: The Modern Transformation from ‘the People as Foundation’ to a Democratic Ideal 孔子的發展理念與現代化的路徑選擇:從民本思想向民主理念的現代轉化.” Confucius Studies 孔子研究 (4): 4–9

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, Zehou 李澤厚. 1998. Reading the Analects Today 論語今讀. Hefei 合肥: Anhui Literature 安徽文藝.

  • Liu, Shu-hsien. 2003. Essentials of Contemporary Neo-Confucian Philosophy. Westport, CT: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, John. 1980. Second Treatise of Government. Indianapolis: Hackett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makeham, John, ed. 2000. New Confucianism: A Critical Examination. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mengzi zhengyi 孟子正義.1987. Ed. by Jiao Xun 焦循. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局.

  • Murthy, Viren. 2000. “The Democratic Potential of Confucian Minben Thought.” Asian Philosophy 10.1: 33–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Geographic-Roper Public Affairs 2006 Geographic Literacy Study. 2006. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/roper2006/pdf/FINALReport2006GeogLitsurvey.pdf. Accessed 1/26/09

  • O’Brien, Kevin J. and Li Lianjiang. 2000. “Accommodating ‘Democracy’ in a One-Party State: Introducing Village Elections in China.” The China Quarterly 162 (June): 465–89.

  • O’Dwyer, Shaun. 2003. “Democracy and Confucian Values.” Philosophy East and West 53.1 (January): 39–63.

  • Peerenboom, Randall. 1998. “Confucian Harmony and Freedom of Thought: The Right to Think Versus Right Thinking.” In de Bary and Tu 1998, 234–60

  • Pines, Yuri. 2005–2006. “Subversion Unearthed: Criticism of Hereditary Succession in the Newly Discovered Manuscripts.” Oriens Extremus 45: 159–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rozman, Gilbert. 1991. “The East Asian Region in Comparative Perspective,” in The East Asian Region: Confucian Heritage and its Modern Adaptation. Ed. By Gilbert Rozman. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensson, Marina. 2002. Debating Human Rights in China: A Conceptual and Political History. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, Sor-hoon. 2004. Confucian Democracy: A Deweyan Reconstruction. Albany: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • ———. 2007. “Confucian Democracy as Pragmatic Experiment: Uniting Love of Learning and Love of Antiquity.” Asian Philosophy 17.2 (July): 141–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwald, Justin. 2008. “A Right of Rebellion in the Mengzi?” Dao 7 (Fall): 269–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tu, Wei-ming. 1993. Way, Learning, and Politics. Albany: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twiss, Sumner. 1998. “A Constructive Framework for Discussing Confucianism and Human Rights.” In de Bary and Tu 1998, 27–53

  • Wang, Enbao and Regina F. Titunik. 2000. “Democracy in China: The Theory and Practice of Minben.” In China and Democracy: The Prospect for a Democratic China. Ed. by Zhao Suisheng. New York: Routledge.

  • Xu, Keqian. 2006. “Early Confucian Principles: The Potential Theoretic Foundation of Democracy in Modern China.” Asian Philosophy 16.2 (July): 135–48.

  • ——— 徐克謙. 2004. “On the Compatibility of and Links between the Fundamental Principles of Confucianism and Democratic Government 論儒學基本原理與民主政治的兼容與接軌.” Confucius Studies 孔子研究(6): 4–10, 76.

  • Xunzi jijie 荀子集解. 1993. Ed. by Wang Xianqian 王先謙. Taibei: Huazheng Zhuju 華正書局.

  • Yang, Guorong. 2004. “Mengzi and Democracy: Dual Implications,” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 31.1: 83–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zakaria, Fareed. 1994. “Culture Is Destiny; A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew.” Foreign Affairs (March/April). http://www.fareedzakaria.com/articles/other/culture.html. Accessed 8/31/08.

  • Zhang, Shiqiang 張世強 and Zhang Shize 張世澤. 2006. “A Critical Approach to the Relationship between Confucian Tradition and Democracy: From a Post-Modern Perspective 儒家傳統與民主政治之批判性省察:一個後現代的觀點.” Journal of the Confucius and Mencius Society of the Republic of China 孔孟學報 84 (September): 1–20.

  • Zweig, David and Fung Chung Siu. 2007. “Elections, Democratic Values, and Economic Development in Rural China.” Journal of Contemporary China 16.50 (February): 25–45.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Philosophy, SUNY New Paltz, 1 Hawk Drive, New Paltz, NY, 12561, USA

    David Elstein

Authors
  1. David Elstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David Elstein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Elstein, D. Why Early Confucianism Cannot Generate Democracy. Dao 9, 427–443 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-010-9187-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-010-9187-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation