Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment of 18 endocrine disrupting chemicals in tap water samples from Klang Valley, Malaysia

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Multiclass of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) such as nine perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), five bisphenols, and four parabens were analysed in tap water samples from Malaysia’s Klang Valley region. All samples were analysed using liquid chromatography mass tandem spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) with limit of quantitation (LOQ) ranged between 0.015 and 5 ng/mL. Fifteen of the 18 EDCs were tested positive in tap water samples, with total EDC concentrations ranging from 0.28 to 5516 ng/L for all 61 sampling point locations. In a specific area of the Klang Valley, the total concentration of EDCs was found to be highest in Hulu Langat, followed by Sepang, Putrajaya, Petaling, Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, and Gombak/Klang. PFAS and paraben were the most found EDCs in all tap water samples. Meanwhile, ethyl paraben (EtP) exhibited the highest detection rate, with 90.2% of all locations showing its presence. Over 60% of the regions showed the presence of perfluoro-n-butanoic acid (PFBA), perfluoro-n-hexanoic acid (PFHXA), perfluoro-n-octanoic acid (PFOA), perfluoro-n-nonanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluoro-1-octanesulfonate (PFOS), whereas the frequency of detection for other compounds was less than 40%. The spatial distribution and mean concentrations of EDCs in the Klang Valley regions revealed that Hulu Langat, Petaling Jaya, and Putrajaya exhibited higher levels of bisphenol A (BPA). On the other hand, Kuala Lumpur and Sepang displayed the highest mean concentrations of PFBA. In the worst scenario, the estimated daily intake (EDI) and risk quotient of some EDCs in this study exceeded the acceptable daily limits recommended by international standards, particularly for BPA, PFOA, PFOS, and PFNA, where the risk quotient (RQ) was found to be greater than 1, indicating a high risk to human health. The increasing presence of EDCs in tap water is undoubtedly a cause for concern as these substances can have adverse health consequences. This highlights the necessity for a standardised approach to evaluating EDC exposure and its direct impact on human populations’ health.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

References

  • Arnold SM, Clark KE, Staples CA, Klecka GM, Dimond SS, Caspers N, Hentges SG (2013) Relevance of drinking water as a source of human exposure to bisphenol A. J Eposure Sci Environ Epidemiol 23:137–144

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Azlan A, Khoo H, Idris M, Amin I, Razman M (2012) Consumption patterns and perception on intake of drinking water in Klang Valley, Malaysia. Pak J Nutr 11:584

    Google Scholar 

  • Boone J, Vigo C, Boone T, Byrne C, Ferrario J, Benson R, Donohue J, Simmons J, Kolpin D, Furlong E, Glassmeyer S (2018) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in source and treated drinking waters of the United States. Sci Total Environ 653:359–369

    Google Scholar 

  • Braun JM (2017) Early-life exposure to EDCs: role in childhood obesity and neurodevelopment. Nat Rev Endocrinol 13:161–173

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carmona E, Andreu V, Picó Y (2014) Occurrence of acidic pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Turia River Basin: from waste to drinking water. Sci Total Environ 484:53–63

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casas Ferreira AM, Möder M, Fernández Laespada ME (2011) GC-MS determination of parabens, triclosan and methyl triclosan in water by in situ derivatisation and stir-bar sorptive extraction. Anal Bioanal Chem 399:945–953

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chain EPoCitF, Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L, Leblanc JC (2020) Risk to human health related to the presence of perfluoroalkyl substances in food. EFSA J 18:e06223

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng YC, Chen HW, Chen WL, Chen CY, Wang GS (2015) Occurrence of nonylphenol and bisphenol A in household water pipes made of different materials. Environ Monit Assess 188:562

    Google Scholar 

  • Corrales J, Kristofco LA, Steele WB, Yates BS, Breed CS, Williams ES, Brooks BWJD-R (2015) Global assessment of bisphenol A in the environment: review and analysis of its occurrence and bioaccumulation. 13(3):1559325815598308

  • Crone BC, Speth TF, Wahman DG, Smith SJ, Abulikemu G, Kleiner EJ, Pressman JG (2019) Occurrence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in source water and their treatment in drinking water. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 49:2359–2396

    Google Scholar 

  • Dang CV, Day RS, Selwyn B, Maldonado YM, Nguyen KC, Le TD, Le MB (2010) Initiating BMI prevalence studies in Vietnamese children: changes in a transitional economy. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 19:209–216

    Google Scholar 

  • de Jesus Gaffney V, Almeida CMM, Rodrigues A, Ferreira E, Benoliel MJ, Cardoso VV (2015) Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in a water supply system and related human health risk assessment. Water Res 72:199–208

    Google Scholar 

  • Domingo JL, Nadal M (2017) Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in food and human dietary intake: a review of the recent scientific literature. J Agric Food Chem 65:533–543

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials E, Flavourings, Aids P (2015) Scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of bisphenol A (BPA) in foodstuffs. 13(1):3978

  • EFSA (2004) Scientific opinion of the scientific panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food on a request from the commission related to para hydroxybenzoates 83:1–26

  • ESFA (2021) Bisphenol A: EFSA draft opinion proposes lowering the tolerable daily intake. EFSA panel on food contact materials, enzymes, flavourings and processing aids (CEF). EFSA Newsroom

  • Fan Y-Y, Zheng J-L, Ren J-H, Luo J, Cui X-Y, Ma LQ (2014) Effects of storage temperature and duration on release of antimony and bisphenol A from polyethylene terephthalate drinking water bottles of China. Environ Pollut 192:113–120

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fransway AF, Fransway PJ, Belsito DV, Yiannias JA (2019) Paraben toxicology. Dermatitis 30:32–45

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ginter-Kramarczyk D, Zembrzuska J, Kruszelnicka I, Zając-Woźnialis A, Ciślak M (2022) Influence of temperature on the quantity of bisphenol A in bottled drinking water. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:5710

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ginter-Kramarczyk D, Zembrzuska J (2022) Influence of temperature on the quantity of bisphenol A in bottled drinking water 19(9):5710

  • Gurmeet K, Rosnah I, Normadiah MK, Das S, Mustafa AM (2014) Detrimental effects of bisphenol A on development and functions of the male reproductive system in experimental rats. EXCLI J 13:151–160

    Google Scholar 

  • Haman C, Dauchy X, Rosin C, Munoz J-F (2015) Occurrence, fate and behavior of parabens in aquatic environments: a review. Water Res 68:1–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heo JJ, Lee JW, Kim SK, Oh JE (2014) Foodstuff analyses show that seafood and water are major perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) sources to humans in Korea. J Hazard Mater 279:402–409

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang R-p, Liu Z-h, Yin H, Dang Z, Wu P-x, Zhu N-w, Lin Z (2018) Bisphenol A concentrations in human urine, human intakes across six continents, and annual trends of average intakes in adult and child populations worldwide: a thorough literature review. Sci Total Environ 626:971–981

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang T, Danaher L-A, Brüschweiler BJ, Kass GEN, Merten C (2019) Naturally occurring bisphenol F in plants used in traditional medicine. Arch Toxicol 93:1485–1490

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Isa NM, Sivapathy A, Kamarruddin NNA (2021): Malaysia on the way to sustainable development: circular economy and green technologies, Modeling Economic Growth in Contemporary Malaysia. Emerald Publishing Limited, pp 91–115

  • Karthikeyan BS, Ravichandran J, Mohanraj K, Vivek-Ananth R, Samal A (2019) A curated knowledgebase on endocrine disrupting chemicals and their biological systems-level perturbations. Sci Total Environ 692:281–296

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leusch FD, Neale PA, Busetti F, Card M, Humpage A, Orbell JD, Ridgway HF, Stewart MB, van de Merwe JP, Escher BI (2019) Transformation of endocrine disrupting chemicals, pharmaceutical and personal care products during drinking water disinfection. Sci Total Environ 657:1480–1490

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li F, Sun H, Hao Z, He N, Zhao L, Zhang T, Sun T (2011) Perfluorinated compounds in Haihe River and Dagu Drainage Canal in Tianjin, China. Chemosphere 84:265–271

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Fatowe M, Cui D, Quinete N (2022) Assessment of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances in Biscayne Bay surface waters and tap waters from South Florida. Sci Total Environ 806:150393

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loraine GA, Pettigrove ME (2006) Seasonal variations in concentrations of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in drinking water and reclaimed wastewater in southern California. Environ Sci Technol 40:687–695

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luo Y, Guo W, Ngo HH, Nghiem LD, Hai FI, Zhang J, Liang S, Wang XC (2014) A review on the occurrence of micropollutants in the aquatic environment and their fate and removal during wastewater treatment. Sci Total Environ 473–474:619–641

    Google Scholar 

  • Lv Y-Z, Yao L, Wang L, Liu W-R, Zhao J-L, He L-Y, Ying G-G (2019) Bioaccumulation, metabolism, and risk assessment of phenolic endocrine disrupting chemicals in specific tissues of wild fish. Chemosphere 226:607–615

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martín J, Hidalgo F, García-Corcoles MT, Ibáñez-Yuste AJ, Alonso E, Vilchez JL, Zafra-Gómez A (2019) Bioaccumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in marine echinoderms: results of laboratory-scale experiments with Holothuria tubulosa Gmelin, 1791. Chemosphere 215:261–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Miranowicz-Dzierżawska K (2020) Reprotoxic and endocrine substances, emerging chemical risks in the work environment. CRC Press, pp 73–126

  • Mirzabeygi M, Yousefi M, Soleimani H, Mohammadi AA, Mahvi AH, Abbasnia A (2018) The concentration data of fluoride and health risk assessment in drinking water in the Ardakan city of Yazd province, Iran. Data in Brief 18:40–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohammadi AA, Yousefi M, Mahvi AHJDib (2017) Fluoride concentration level in rural area in Poldasht city and daily fluoride intake based on drinking water consumption with temperature 13:312–315

  • Monneret C (2017) What is an endocrine disruptor? CR Biol 340:403–405

    Google Scholar 

  • Morales M, de la Fuente M, Martín-Folgar R (2020) BPA and its analogues (BPS and BPF) modify the expression of genes involved in the endocrine pathway and apoptosis and a multi drug resistance gene of the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius (Diptera). Environ Pollut 265:114806

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira A, Gomes I, Simões M (2023) Methylparaben as a concerning environmental pollutant compromising drinking water quality. Sci Lett 1(Sup 1)

  • Pérez F, Nadal M, Navarro-Ortega A, Fàbrega F, Domingo JL, Barceló D, Farré M (2013) Accumulation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human tissues. Environ Int 59:354–362

    Google Scholar 

  • Radwan EK, Ibrahim MBM, Adel A, Farouk M (2020) The occurrence and risk assessment of phenolic endocrine-disrupting chemicals in Egypt’s drinking and source water. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:1776–1788

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz W, Wegener S, Schertzinger G, Pannekens H, Schweyen P, Dierkes G, Klein K, Ternes TA, Oehlmann J, Dopp E (2023) Chemical and toxicological assessment of leachates from UV-degraded plastic materials using in-vitro bioassays. PeerJ 11:e15192

    Google Scholar 

  • Solecki R, Kortenkamp A, Bergman Å, Chahoud I, Degen GH, Dietrich D, Greim H, Håkansson H, Hass U, Husoy T (2017) Scientific principles for the identification of endocrine-disrupting chemicals: a consensus statement. Arch Toxicol 91:1001–1006

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tahziz A, Ruzi II, Yahaya N, Mohamed R, Ishak AR, Edinur HA, Aziz MY (2021) Occurrence and toxicology aspects of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the environment and food: a review. Malaysian J Med Health Sci 17:165–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomaidi VS, Tsahouridou A, Matsoukas C, Stasinakis AS, Petreas M, Kalantzi OI (2020) Risk assessment of PFASs in drinking water using a probabilistic risk quotient methodology. Sci Total Environ 712:136485

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ünlü Endirlik B, Bakır E, Boşgelmez İ, Eken A, Narin İ, Gürbay A (2019) Assessment of perfluoroalkyl substances levels in tap and bottled water samples from Turkey. Chemosphere 235:1162–1171

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Cai Z, Zhang J, Hu Z, Han J, Feng L, Zhang N, Lu Y, Zhang J (2020) Simultaneous determination of nine bisphenol migrations in products related to sanitary and safety of drinking water by auto-solid phase extraction and ultra-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array and fluorescence detector. SN Appl Sci 2:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang T, Wang Y, Liao C, Cai Y, Jiang G (2009) Perspectives on the inclusion of perfluorooctane sulfonate into the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants. ACS Publications 9:5171–5175

    Google Scholar 

  • Wee SY, Aris AZ (2017) Endocrine disrupting compounds in drinking water supply system and human health risk implication. Environ Int 106:207–233

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wee SY, Aris AZ, Yusoff FM, Praveena SM (2020a) Occurrence of multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in a drinking water supply system and associated risks. Sci Rep 10:1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Wee SY, Aris AZ, Yusoff FM, Praveena SM (2020b) Occurrence of multiclass endocrine disrupting compounds in a drinking water supply system and associated risks. Sci Rep 10:17755

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yilmaz B, Terekeci H, Sandal S, Kelestimur F (2020) Endocrine disrupting chemicals: exposure, effects on human health, mechanism of action, models for testing and strategies for prevention. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 21:127–147

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zamri MFMA, Bahru R, Pramanik SK, Fattah IMR (2021) Treatment strategies for enhancing the removal of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in water and wastewater systems. J Water Process Eng 41:102017

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang W, Zhang Y, Taniyasu S, Yeung LWY, Lam PKS, Wang J, Li X, Yamashita N, Dai J (2013) Distribution and fate of perfluoroalkyl substances in municipal wastewater treatment plants in economically developed areas of China. Environ Pollut 176:10–17

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to Kyoto University and Universiti Malaya for providing technical assistance and Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Ronpaku program (Dissertation PhD) for their financial support. Each participant’s contribution is acknowledged. Additionally, the authors would like to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) and Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) fellows for their assistance with the sampling campaign and data analysis.

Funding

The research that led to these findings was supported by JSPS RONPAKU (Dissertation Ph.D.) Program Japan.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

    Didi Erwandi Mohamad Haron & Minoru Yoneda

  2. Centre of Research Service, Institute of Research Management and Services, Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Renovation), Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

    Didi Erwandi Mohamad Haron

  3. Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

    Rafidah Hod

  4. Department of Environmental Management, Ministry of Environmental and Water, 62000, Putrajaya, Malaysia

    Mohd Redzuan Ramli

  5. Department of Toxicology, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam, 13200, Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia

    Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz

  6. Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Public Health Faculty, Universitas Airlangga, 60115, Surabaya, Indonesia

    Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz

Authors
  1. Didi Erwandi Mohamad Haron
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Minoru Yoneda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rafidah Hod
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mohd Redzuan Ramli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

The study conception and design involved contributions from all authors. Didi Erwandi Mohamad Haron, Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz, and Minoru Yoneda performed material preparation, data collection, and analysis. Didi Erwandi Mohamad Haron wrote the initial draft of the manuscript, and all authors provided feedback on earlier versions of the manuscript. Finally, all authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Ester Heath

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Haron, D.E.M., Yoneda, M., Hod, R. et al. Assessment of 18 endocrine disrupting chemicals in tap water samples from Klang Valley, Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 111062–111075 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30022-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30022-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation