Abstract
This study investigates pollution levels, source apportionment, ecological, and human health risks associated with toxic metals (Pb, As, Hg, Cr, and Cd) in road dust from the most populated Dhaka city and a connected major highway in Bangladesh. The mean concentration of Pb, Hg, and Cd were 1.3, 29.3, and 13.2 times higher than their corresponding background values with spatially uneven distribution all over the study area. Metal pollution indices, the geo-accumulation index (Igeo), NIPI, and PI, indicated extreme contamination at many sites depending on local environmental factors. The potential ecological risk (\({\mathrm{E}}_{\mathrm{r}}^{\mathrm{i}})\) revealed that 84% and 54% of samples showed the extreme ecological risk for Hg and Cd pollution, respectively. On the other hand, the potential ecological risk index (PERI) and Nemerow integrated risk index (NIRI) showed that most sampling sites suffered high to extreme ecological risk. Source apportionment using positive matrix factorization (PMF) identified coal combustion, and gasoline (50.14%), traffic exhaust (35.26%), and industrial and agriculture activity (14.60%) were the main source of toxic metals of the study area. Non-carcinogenic health risk indicated that adults are more vulnerable than children, and hazard index (HI) of Hg for both age groups and Cd for adults were significantly higher than the safe level. The carcinogenic risk (CR) levels of toxic metals were acceptable (10−6 to 10−4), although the maximum limit of Cr for children and As for adults was close to the unacceptable limit (10−4). Continual exposure to toxic metals through road dust might develop lifetime cancer risk in local inhabitants.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
All data sources described in this study are directed at the corresponding authors.
References
Aguilera A, Bautista F, Gutiérrez-Ruiz M, et al (2021) Heavy metal pollution of street dust in the largest city of Mexico, sources and health risk assessment. Environ Monit Assess 193:. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-08993-4
Ahmed F, Bibi MH, Ishiga H (2006) Environmental assessment of Dhaka City (Bangladesh) based on trace metal contents in road dusts. Environ Geol 51:975–985. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0367-1
Ahmed F, Ishiga H (2006) Trace metal concentrations in street dusts of Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Atmos Environ 40:3835–3844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.03.004
Al-Shidi HK, Al-Reasi HA, Sulaiman H (2020) Heavy metals levels in road dust from Muscat, Oman: relationship with traffic volumes, and ecological and health risk assessments. Int J Environ Health Res 00:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2020.1751806
Ali MU, Liu G, Yousaf B et al (2017) Pollution characteristics and human health risks of potentially (eco)toxic elements (PTEs) in road dust from metropolitan area of Hefei, China. Chemosphere 181:111–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.061
Awadh SM (2015) Cd, Ni, and Pb distribution and pollution assessment in roadside dust from Baghdad City and Western Iraqi Desert. Arab J Geosci 8:315–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-013-1204-y
Banerjee ADK (2003) Heavy metal levels and solid phase speciation in street dusts of Delhi, India. Environ Pollut 123:95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00337-8
Bhuiyan MAH, Dampare SB, Islam MA, Suzuki S (2015) Source apportionment and pollution evaluation of heavy metals in water and sediments of Buriganga River, Bangladesh, using multivariate analysis and pollution evaluation indices. Environ Monit Assess 187:4075. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-4075-0
Bhuiyan MAH, Suruvi NI, Dampare SB et al (2011) Investigation of the possible sources of heavy metal contamination in lagoon and canal water in the tannery industrial area in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Environ Monit Assess 175:633–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1557-6
Bodrud-Doza M, Bhuiyan MAH, Islam SMDU et al (2019) Hydrogeochemical investigation of groundwater in Dhaka City of Bangladesh using GIS and multivariate statistical techniques. Groundw Sustain Dev 8:226–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.11.008
Burgess WG, Hasan MK, Rihani E et al (2011) Groundwater quality trends in the Dupi Tila aquifer of Dhaka, Bangladesh: sources of contamination evaluated using modelling and environmental isotopes. Int J Urban Sustain Dev 3:56–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2011.554662
Cai K, Li C (2019) Street dust heavy metal pollution source apportionment and sustainable management in a typical city—Shijiazhuang, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142625
Chen H, Kwong JC, Copes R et al (2017) Living near major roads and the incidence of dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 389:718–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)32399-6USEPA
Counter SA, Buchanan LH (2004) Mercury exposure in children: a review. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 198:209–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.032
Dehghani S, Moore F, Keshavarzi B, Hale BA (2017) Health risk implications of potentially toxic metals in street dust and surface soil of Tehran. Iran Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 136:92–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.10.037
Duong TTT, Lee BK (2011) Determining contamination level of heavy metals in road dust from busy traffic areas with different characteristics. J Environ Manage 92:554–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.09.010
Faiz Y, Siddique N, Tufail M (2012) Pollution level and health risk assessment of road dust from an expressway. J Environ Sci Heal Part A 47:818–829. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2012.664994
Ferreira-Baptista L, De Miguel E (2005) Geochemistry and risk assessment of street dust in Luanda, Angola: a tropical urban environment. Atmos Environ 39:4501–4512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.03.026
Foti L, Dubs F, Gignoux J et al (2017) Trace element concentrations along a gradient of urban pressure in forest and lawn soils of the Paris region (France). Sci Total Environ 598:938–948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.111
Gilbert RO (1987) Statistical methods for environmental pollution monitoring. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Guo G, Zhang D, Yuntao W (2021) Source apportionment and source-specific health risk assessment of heavy metals in size-fractionated road dust from a typical mining and smelting area, Gejiu, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:9313–9326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11312-y
Guttikunda SK, Begum BA, Wadud Z (2013) Particulate pollution from brick kiln clusters in the Greater Dhaka region, Bangladesh. Air Qual Atmos Heal 6:357–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-012-0187-2
Hakanson L (1980) An ecological risk index for aquatic pollution control. A Sedimentological Approach Water Res 14:975–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(80)90143-8
Han NMM, Latif MT, Othman M et al (2014) Composition of selected heavy metals in road dust from Kuala Lumpur city centre. Environ Earth Sci 72:849–859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-3008-5
Haque MM, Hossain N, Jolly YN, Tareq SM (2021a) Probabilistic health risk assessment of toxic metals in chickens from the largest production areas of Dhaka. Environ Sci Pollut Res, Bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13534-0
Haque MM, Niloy NM, Khirul MA et al (2021b) Appraisal of probabilistic human health risks of heavy metals in vegetables from industrial, non-industrial and arsenic contaminated areas of Bangladesh. Heliyon 7:e06309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06309
Hasan ASMM (2020) Electric rickshaw charging stations as distributed energy storages for integrating intermittent renewable energy sources: a case of Bangladesh. Energies 13:6119. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226119
Heidari M, Darijani T, Alipour V (2021) Heavy metal pollution of road dust in a city and its highly polluted suburb; quantitative source apportionment and source-specific ecological and health risk assessment. Chemosphere 273:129656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129656
Hou S, Zheng N, Tang L et al (2019) Pollution characteristics, sources, and health risk assessment of human exposure to Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb pollution in urban street dust across China between 2009 and 2018. Environ Int 128:430–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.046
Hwang HM, Fiala MJ, Park D, Wade TL (2016) Review of pollutants in urban road dust and stormwater runoff: part 1. Heavy metals released from vehicles. Int J Urban Sci 20:334–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2016.1193041
IARC (2011) International agency for research on cancer. Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs. 1–102. International Agency for Research on Cancer | LIS | LIS-bvsms (bvsalud.org). https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/pt/lis-46560?src=similardocs
Islam MA, Al-mamun A, Hossain F et al (2017) Contamination and ecological risk assessment of trace elements in sediments of the rivers of Sundarban mangrove forest, Bangladesh. Mar Pollut Bull 124:356–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.07.059
Jayarathne A, Egodawatta P, Ayoko GA, Goonetilleke A (2018) Assessment of ecological and human health risks of metals in urban road dust based on geochemical fractionation and potential bioavailability. Sci Total Environ 635:1609–1619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.098
Jiang HH, Cai LM, Wen HH, Luo J (2020) Characterizing pollution and source identification of heavy metals in soils using geochemical baseline and PMF approach. Sci Rep 10:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63604-5
Jiang X, Lu WX, Zhao HQ et al (2014) Potential ecological risk assessment and prediction of soil heavy-metal pollution around coal gangue dump. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 14:1599–1610. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-14-1599-2014
Keshavarzi B, Tazarvi Z, Rajabzadeh MA, Najmeddin A (2015) Chemical speciation, human health risk assessment and pollution level of selected heavy metals in urban street dust of Shiraz. Elsevier Ltd, Iran
Khademi H, Gabarrón M, Abbaspour A et al (2019) Environmental impact assessment of industrial activities on heavy metals distribution in street dust and soil. Chemosphere 217:695–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.045
Khairy MA, Barakat AO, Mostafa AR, Wade TL (2011) Multielement determination by flame atomic absorption of road dust samples in Delta Region. Egypt Microchem J 97:234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2010.09.012
Kim E, Hopke PK (2007) Comparison between sample-species specific uncertainties and estimated uncertainties for the source apportionment of the speciation trends network data. Atmos Environ 41:567–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.023
Kim KH, Kabir E, Jahan SA (2016) A review on the distribution of Hg in the environment and its human health impacts. J Hazard Mater 306:376–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.11.031
Kolakkandi V, Sharma B, Rana A et al (2020) Spatially resolved distribution, sources and health risks of heavy metals in size-fractionated road dust from 57 sites across megacity Kolkata. India Sci Total Environ 705:135805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135805
Li H, Qian X, Hu W et al (2013) Chemical speciation and human health risk of trace metals in urban street dusts from a metropolitan city, Nanjing, SE China. Sci Total Environ 456–457:212–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.094
Li HH, Chen LJ, Yu L et al (2017) Pollution characteristics and risk assessment of human exposure to oral bioaccessibility of heavy metals via urban street dusts from different functional areas in Chengdu, China. Sci Total Environ 586:1076–1084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.092
Lu X, Li LY, Wang L et al (2009) Contamination assessment of mercury and arsenic in roadway dust from Baoji, China. Atmos Environ 43:2489–2496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.01.048
Lu X, Wu X, Wang Y et al (2014) Risk assessment of toxic metals in street dust from a medium-sized industrial city of China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 106:154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.04.022
Men C, Liu R, Xu F et al (2018) Pollution characteristics, risk assessment, and source apportionment of heavy metals in road dust in Beijing, China. Sci Total Environ 612:138–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.123
Men C, Liu R, Xu L, et al (2020) Source-specific ecological risk analysis and critical source identification of heavy metals in road dust in Beijing, China. J Hazard Mater 388:. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121763
Men C, Wang Y, Liu R et al (2021) Temporal variations of levels and sources of health risk associated with heavy metals in road dust in Beijing from May 2016 to April 2018. Chemosphere 270:129434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129434
Moghtaderi T, Alamdar R, Rodríguez-Seijo A, et al (2020) Ecological risk assessment and source apportionment of heavy metal contamination in urban soils in Shiraz, Southwest Iran. Arab J Geosci 13:. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05787-9
Mondal S, Singh G (2021) Pollution evaluation, human health effect and tracing source of trace elements on road dust of Dhanbad, a highly polluted industrial coal belt of India. Environ Geochem Health 0123456789: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00785-y
Müller G (1979) Schwermetalle in den sediments des Rheins- Veranderungen seitt 1971. Umschan 79:778–783
Nazzal Y, Rosen MA, Al-Rawabdeh AM (2013) Assessment of metal pollution in urban road dusts from selected highways of the Greater Toronto Area in Canada. Environ Monit Assess 185:1847–1858. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2672-3
Nicholson KW (1988) A review of particle resuspension. Atmos Environ 22:2639–2651. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-6981(88)90433-7
Qin H, Hu T, Zhai Y et al (2020) The improved methods of heavy metals removal by biosorbents: a review. Elsevier
Rahman MS, Jolly YN, Akter S et al (2021) Sources of toxic elements in indoor dust sample at export processing zone (EPZ) area: Dhaka, Bangladesh; and their impact on human health. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:39540–39557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13167-3
Rahman MS, Khan MDH, Jolly YN et al (2019) Assessing risk to human health for heavy metal contamination through street dust in the Southeast Asian Megacity: Dhaka, Bangladesh. Sci Total Environ 660:1610–1622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.425
Rahman MS, Saha N, Kumar S et al (2022) Coupling of redundancy analysis with geochemistry and mineralogy to assess the behavior of dust arsenic as a base of risk estimation in Dhaka. Bangladesh Chemosphere 287:132048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132048
Raja R, Nayak AK, Rao KS et al (2014) Effect of fly ash deposition on photosynthesis, growth and yield of rice. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 93:106–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-014-1282-x
Rashid MS (2003) A study of land transformation in Savar Upazila, Bangladesh, 1915–2001: an integrated approach using remote sensing, census, map and field data. Durham theses, Durham University. Available at: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1064/. Accessed 1 May 2021.
Sehmel GA (1980) Particle resuspension: A review. Environ Int 4:107–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-4120(80)90005-7
Turekian KK, Wedepohl KH (1961) Distribution of the elements in some major units of the earth’s crust. Bull Geol Soc Am 72:175–192. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1961)72[175:DOTEIS]2.0.CO;2
USEPA, Method 3051A, (2007A) Microwave assisted acid dissolution of sediments, sludges, soils, and oils, revision 1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
USEPA (1996) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Soil Screening Guidance: technical background document. EPA/540/R-95/128. Office of Solid and Emergency Response. NEPIS | US EPA
USEPA (2011a) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Environmental Protection Agency, U.S
USEPA (1989). Risk assessment guidance for superfund. Volume I: human health evaluation manual (part a). EPA/540/1-89/002
USEPA (2004) Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment), US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. Available at: https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part-e
USEPA (2011) Risk assessment guidance for Superfund: volume III part A, process for conducting probabilistic risk assessment. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Wang J, Chen Z, Sun X et al (2009) Quantitative spatial characteristics and environmental risk of toxic heavy metals in urban dusts of Shanghai, China. Environ Earth Sci 59:645–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0061-1
Wang Q, Lu X, Pan H (2016) Analysis of heavy metals in the re-suspended road dusts from different functional areas in Xi’an, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:19838–19846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7200-5
Wang X, Liu E, Lin Q et al (2020) Occurrence, sources and health risks of toxic metal(loid)s in road dust from a mega city (Nanjing) in China. Environ Pollut 263:114518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114518
Wiesner MR, Lowry GV, Jones KL et al (2009) Decreasing uncertainties in assessing environmental exposure, risk, and ecological implications of nanomaterials † ‡. Environ Sci Technol 43:6458–6462. https://doi.org/10.1021/es803621k
World population data (2021) Population Stat. Dhaka, Bangladesh Population. https://populationstat.com/bangladesh/dhaka. Accessed 30 Apr 2021
Xiao Q, Zong Y, Malik Z, Lu S (2020) Source identification and risk assessment of heavy metals in road dust of steel industrial city (Anshan), Liaoning, Northeast China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 26:1359–1378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1578946
Xu C, Zhang Q, Gao L et al (2019) Spatial distributions and transport implications of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in soils and sediments from an e-waste dismantling area in China. Sci Total Environ 649:821–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.355
Yang Z, Lu W, Long Y et al (2011) Assessment of heavy metals contamination in urban topsoil from Changchun City, China. J Geochemical Explor 108:27–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2010.09.006
Yesilkanat CM, Kobya Y (2021) Spatial characteristics of ecological and health risks of toxic heavy metal pollution from road dust in the Black Sea coast of Turkey. Geoderma Reg 25:e00388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2021.e00388
Yu W, Liu R, Wang J et al (2015) Source apportionment of PAHs in surface sediments using positive matrix factorization combined with GIS for the estuarine area of the Yangtze River, China. Chemosphere 134:263–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.049
Zhang J, Hua P, Krebs P (2017) Influences of land use and antecedent dry-weather period on pollution level and ecological risk of heavy metals in road-deposited sediment. Environ Pollut 228:158–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.029
Zhao W, Ding L, Gu X et al (2015) Levels and ecological risk assessment of metals in soils from a typical e-waste recycling region in southeast China. Ecotoxicology 24:1947–1960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-015-1532-7
Zhu X, Yu W, Li F et al (2021) Spatio-temporal distribution and source identification of heavy metals in particle size fractions of road dust from a typical industrial district. Sci Total Environ 780:146357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146357
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Chemistry Division, Atomic Energy Center, Dhaka, for providing logistic and technical support. Sajin Sultana would like to extend gratitude to Juel Mahmud for his support during sample collections and A.K.M Atique Ullah for his kind support and suggestions during the experiment at Atomic Energy Center, Dhaka.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Md. Morshedul Haque: writing—original draft; formal analysis; visualization.
Sajin Sultana: investigation and data curation.
Nahin Mostofa Niloy: data curation.
Shamshad B. Quraishi: resources.
Shafi M. Tareq: conceptualization, review and editing, supervision.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Constantini Samara.
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• Toxic metals distributed unevenly in road dust with high concentrations.
• Positive matrix factorization used to identify toxic metal sources in road dust.
• Three factors influenced toxic metals content; coal-gasoline burning contributed most.
• Road dust showed a high ecological risk for some sites, especially for Cd and Hg.
• Toxic metal exposure through road dust would pose a risk for public health.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Haque, M., Sultana, S., Niloy, N.M. et al. Source apportionment, ecological, and human health risks of toxic metals in road dust of densely populated capital and connected major highway of Bangladesh. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 37218–37233 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18458-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18458-3