Abstract
Livestock grazing is a prevalent land use in western North American intermountain wetlands, and physical and biotic changes related to grazing-related disturbance can potentially limit wetland habitat value for waterfowl. We evaluated breeding waterfowl use in 34 wetlands in relation to water retention, amount of wetlands on the landscape, and livestock grazing intensity. The study was conducted over 2 years in the southern intermountain region of British Columbia, Canada. For a subset of 17 wetlands, we measured aquatic invertebrate abundance over 1 year. Waterfowl breeding pairs and broods were classified into three functional groups: dabbling ducks, and two types of diving ducks, overwater and cavity nesters. We evaluated candidate models with variables considered singly and in combination using the Akaike Information Criterion. When selected, bare ground (an indicator of grazing intensity) and wetland density were negatively associated with breeding use while wetland fullness and invertebrate density were positively associated. Each factor was a significant predictor in at least one of the models, but unexpectedly, grazing intensity was the most consistent predictor of waterfowl wetland use (e.g., it was present in more ‘best models’ than wetland fullness). Grazing was associated with declines in the number of waterfowl pairs and broods, likely mediated through effects on wetland vegetation and aquatic macroinvertebrates. Models with site- and landscape-scale variables generally performed better than simpler models. Waterfowl breeding use of wetlands can be improved by reduced livestock grazing intensity adjacent to wetlands and by grazing later in the season. Wetland water retention is also an important constraint on waterfowl use of wetlands and may become more limiting with a shifting climate.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andresen H, Bakker JP, Brongers M, Heydemann B, Irmler U (1990) Long-term changes of salt marsh communities by cattle grazing. Vegetatio 89(2):137–148
Arnold TW (2009) Uninformative parameters and model selection using akaike’s information criterion. J Wildl Manag 74:1175–1178
Ausden M, Hall M, Pearson P, Strudwick T (2005) The effects of cattle grazing on tall-herb fen vegetation and molluscs. Biol Conser 122:317–326
Bagella S, Gascon S, Caria MC, Sala J, Mariani MA, Boix D (2010) Identifying key environmental factors related to plant and crustacean assemblages in Mediterranean temporary ponds. Biodiv Conserv 19:1749–1768
Bartzen B (2008) Wetland characteristics and abundance of breeding ducks in prairie Canada. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon
Bates D, Maechler M, Bolker B (2011) lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R package version 0.999375-39. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4
Batzer DP, Wissinger SA (1996) Ecology of insect communities in nontidal wetlands. Ann Rev Entom 41:75–100
Bleho BI, Koper N, Machtans CS (2014) Direct effects of cattle on grassland birds in Canada. Conserv Biol 28(3):724–734
Bouahim S, Rhazi L, Amami B, Sahib N, Rhazi M, Waterkeyn A, Zouahri A, Mesleard F, Muller SD, Grillas P (2010) Impact of grazing on the species richness of plant communities in Mediterranean temporary pools (western Morocco). CR Biol 333:670–679
Canadian Wildlife Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1987) Standard operating procedures for aerial waterfowl breeding ground population and habitat surveys in North America. Unpublished report. p. 34
Carlyle CN, Fraser LH, Haddow CM, Bings BA, Harrower W (2010) The use of digital photos to assess visual cover for wildlife in rangelands. J Environ Manag 91:1366–1370
Clark DL (2015) Effects of livestock grazing on aquatic macroinvertebrates in southern interior wetlands of British Columbia, Canada. Master of Science Thesis, Thompson Rivers University. p. 89
Davis CA, Bidwell JR (2008) Response of aquatic invertebrates to vegetation management and agriculture. Wetlands 28:793–805
Declerck S, De Bie T, Ercken D, Hampel H, Schrijvers S, VanWichelen J, Gillard V, Mandiki R, Losson B, Bauwens D, Keijers S, Vyverman W, Goddeeris B, De meester L, Brendonck L, Martens K (2006) Ecological characteristics of small farmland ponds: associations with land use practices at multiple spatial scales. Biol Cons 131:523–532
Duebbert HF, Lokemoen JT, Sharp DE (1986) Nest sites of ducks in grazed mixed-grass prairie in North Dakota. Prairie Nat 18:99–108
Dzus EH, Clark RG (1998) Brood survival and recruitment of mallards in relation to wetland density and hatching date. Auk 115:311–318
Fleischner TL (1994) Ecological Costs of Livestock Grazing in Western North America. Conserv Biol 8(3):629–644
Foote AL, Hornung CLR (2005) Odonates as biological indicators of grazing effects on Canadian prairie wetlands. Ecol Entom 30:273–283
Gelman A (2008) Scaling regression inputs by dividing by two standard deviations. Stat Med 27:2865–2873
Gilbert DW, Anderson DR, Ringelman JK, Szymczak MR (1996) Response of nesting ducks to habitat and management on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, Colorado. Wildl Mono 131:3–44
Gjersing FM (1975) Waterfowl production in relation to rest-rotation grazing. J Range Manag 28:37–42
Gollop JB, Marshall WH (1954) A guide for ageing duck broods in the field. Mississippi Flyway Council Technical Section Report, Minneapolis
Hillhouse HL, Tunnell SJ, Stubbendieck J (2010) Spring grazing impacts on the vegetation of reed canarygrass–invaded wetlands. Range Ecol Manag 63:581–587
Howerter DW, Rotella JJ, Anderson MG, Armstrong LM, Devries JH (2008) Mallard nest-site selection in an altered environment: predictions and patterns. Israel J Ecol Evol 54:435–457
Hudson MS (1983) Waterfowl production on three age-classes of stock ponds in Montana. J Wildl Manag 47:112–117
Jones WM, Fraser LH, Curtis PJ (2011) Plant community functional shifts in response to livestock grazing in intermountain depressional wetlands in British Columbia, Canada. Biol Conserv 144:511–517
Kantrud HA (1986) Effects of vegetation manipulation on breeding waterfowl in prairie wetlands—a literature review., Fish & Wildlife Technical Report 3US Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington
Kantrud HA, Hillar JB, van der Valk AG (1989) Vegetation of wetlands in the Prairie Potholes Region. In: van der Valk AG (ed) Northern Prairie wetlands. Iowa State University Press, Ames, pp 132–187
Kirsch LM (1969) Waterfowl production in relation to grazing. J Wildl Manag 33:821–828
Kneib T, Knauer F, Küchenhoff H (2011) A general approach to the analysis of habitat selection. Environ Ecol Stat 18:1–25
Koper N, Schmiegelow FKK (2006) A multi-scaled analysis of avian response to habitat amount and fragmentation in the Canadian dry mixed-grass prairie. Landsc Ecol 21:1045–1059
Krapu GL, Reinecke KJ (1992) Foraging ecology and nutrition. In: Batt BDJ, Afton AD, Anderson MG, Ankney CD, Johnson DH, Kadlec JA, Krapu GL (eds) Ecology and management of breeding waterfowl. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp 1–29
Krapu GL, Pietz PJ, Brandt DA, Cox RR (2000) Factors limiting Mallard brood survival in prairie pothole landscapes. J Wildl Manag 64:553–561
Lapointe S, Giroux JF, Bélanger L, Filion B (2000) Benefits of rotational grazing and dense nesting cover for island-nesting waterfowl in southern Quebec. Agric Ecosyst Environ 78:261–272
Lillie RA (2004) Limnological characteristics of waterfowl production area wetlands in St. Croix and Polk Counties, Wisconsin. Technical Bulletin No. 195, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison
Mack GG, Clark RG (2006) Home-range characteristics, age, body size, and breeding performance of female Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos). Auk 123:467–474
Manier DJ, Hobbs NT (2007) Large herbivores in sagebrush steppe ecosystems: livestock and wild ungulates influence structure and function. Oecologia 152:739–750
Marlow CB, Pogacnik TM, Quinsey SD (1987) Streambank stability and cattle grazing in southwestern Montana. J Soil Water Conserv 42:291–296
Marty JT (2005) Effects of cattle grazing on diversity in ephemeral wetlands. Conserv Biol 19:1626–1632
Merritt RW, Cummins KW, Resh VH, Batzer DP (2008) Sampling aquatic insects: collection devices, statistical considerations and rearing procedures. In: Merritt RW, Cummins KW, Berg MB (eds) An introduction to the aquatic insects of North America, 4th edn. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co, Dubuque
Mitsch WJ, Gosselink JG (2000) Wetlands, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York
Morris K, Reich P (2013) Understanding the relationship between livestock grazing and wetland condition., Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Technical Report Series No. 252Department of Environment and Primary Industry, Heidelberg
Morrison WR, Bohlen PJ (2010) Influence of vegetation on invertebrate communities in grazed freshwater wetlands in south-central Florida. Southeast Natural 9:453–464
Mulhern JH, Nudds TD, Neal BR (1985) Wetland selection by Mallards and Blue-Winged Teal. Wilson Bull 97:473–485
Mundinger JG (1976) Waterfowl response to rest-rotation grazing. J Wildl Manag 40:60–68
Murkin HR, Batt BDJ (1987) The interactions of vertebrates and invertebrates in peatlands and marshes. Memoirs Entomol Soc Can 140:15–30
Murkin HR, Caldwell PJ (2000) Avian use of prairie wetlands. In: Murkin HR, van der Valk AG, Clark WR (eds) Prairie wetland ecology. Iowa State University Press, Ames, pp 249–286
Murkin HR, Ross LM (2000) Invertebrates in prairie wetlands. In: Murkin HR, van der Valk AG, Clark WR (eds) Prairie wetland ecology. Iowa State University Press, Ames, pp 201–248
Murkin HR, Murkin EJ, Ball JP (1997) Avian habitat selection and prairie wetland dynamics: a 10-year experiment. Ecol Appl 7(4):1144–1159
Nader G, Tate KW, Atwill R, Bushnell J (1998) Water quality effect of rangeland beef cattle excrement. Rangelands 20:19–25
Naugle DE, Johnson RR, Estey ME, Higgins KF (2000) A landscape approach to conserving wetland bird habitat in the prairie pothole region of eastern South Dakota. Wetlands 20:588–604
Rader RB (2001) An introduction to wetland bioassessment and management. In: Rader RB, Batzer DP, Wissinger SA (eds) Bioassessment and management of North American freshwater wetlands. Wiley, New York, pp 339–354
Raven GH, Armstrong LM, Howerter DW, Arnold TW (2007) Wetland selection by Mallard broods in Canada’s prairie-parklands. J Wildl Manag 71:2527–2531
Richards SA (2008) Dealing with overdispersed count data in applied ecology. J Appl Ecol 45:218–227
Ryan MR, Pierce RA, Suedkamp-Wells KM, Kerns CK (2002) Assessing bird population responses to grazing. In: Hohman W (ed) Migratory bird responses to grazing, Technical Report 190–54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, pp 8–24
Ryan MR, Pierce RA, Suedkamp-Wells KM, Kerns CK (2006) Assessing bird population responses to grazing. In: Hohman W (ed) Migratory bird responses to grazing, Technical Report 190–54. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, pp 16–34
Sayler RD, Willms MA (1997) Brood ecology of Mallards and Gadwalls nesting on islands in large reservoirs. J Wildl Manag 61:808–815
Scrimgeour GJ, Kendall S (2003) Effects of livestock grazing on benthic invertebrates from a native grassland ecosystem. Fresh Biol 48:347–362
Silver CA, Vamosi SM (2012) Macroinvertebrate community composition of temporary prairie wetlands: a preliminary test of the effect of rotational grazing. Wetlands 32:185–197
Simpson JW, Yerkes T, Nudds TD, Smith BD (2007) Effects of habitat on Mallard duckling survival in the Great Lakes region. J Wildl Manag 71:1885–1891
Skaer MJ, Graydon DJ, Cushman JH (2013) Community-level consequences of cattle grazing for an invaded grassland: variable responses of native and exotic vegetation. Veg Sci 24:332–343
Smith GW (1995) A critical review of the aerial and ground surveys of breeding waterfowl in North America. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington
Spiegelhalter DJ, Best NG, Carlin BP, van der Linde A (2002) Bayesian measures of model complexity and fit. J R Stat Soc Ser B 64:583–639
Steinman AD, Conklin J, Bohlen PJ, Uzarski DG (2003) Influence of cattle grazing and pasture land use on macroinvertebrate communities in freshwater wetlands. Wetlands 23:877–889
Stephens SE, Rotella JJ, Lindberg MS, Taper ML, Ringelman JK (2005) Duck nest survival in the Missouri Coteau of North Dakota: landscape effects at multiple spatial scales. Ecol Appl 15:2137–2149
Stewart RE, Kantrud HA (1971) Classification of natural ponds and lakes in the glaciated prairie region. Resource Publication 92. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington
Swanson GA, Meyer MI, Adomaitis VA (1985) Foods consumed by breeding Mallards on wetlands of south-central North Dakota. J Wildl Manag 49:197–203
Tate KW, Dudley DM, McDougald NK, George MR (2004) Effect of canopy and grazing on soil bulk density. J Range Manag 57:411–417
R Development Core Team (2011) R: language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. http://www.R-project.org
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2015) Waterfowl population status, 2015. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington
Vallentine JF (2001) Grazing management, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego
van der Valk AG (2005) Water-level fluctuations in North American prairie wetlands. Hydrobiologia 539:171–188
Warren JM, Rotella JJ, Thompson JE (2008) Contrasting effects of cattle grazing intensity on upland-nesting duck production at nest and field scales in the aspen parkland, Canada. Avian Conserv Ecol 3:6. http://www.ace-eco.org/vol3/iss2/art6/
West BC, Messmer TA (2006) Effects of livestock grazing on duck nesting habitat in Utah. Range Ecol Manag 59:208–211
Wiens JA, Rotenberry JT, Horne BV (1987) Habitat occupancy patterns of North American shrubsteppe birds: the effects of spatial scale. Oikos 48:132–147
Williams BK, Koneff MD, Smith DA (1999) Evaluations of waterfowl conservation under the north American waterfowl management plan. J Wildl Manag 63:417–440
Acknowledgements
We thank Montana Burgess, Eleanor Bassett, David Arkenstall, Rebecca Weafer, Hartland Molson, Patsy Parr, Kay Linley and Brian Purvis for field and laboratory assistance. Llwellyn Armstrong and Lisette Ross contributed advice on statistical modeling and invertebrate sampling, respectively.
Funding
Funding was provided by grants from Ducks Unlimited Canada’s Institute for Wetland and Waterfowl Research, the British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Range Forest Science Program, and a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada Discovery Grant to L.F. W.M.J. was also supported by an NSERC Industrial Postgraduate Scholarship.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Harrison, R.B., Jones, W.M., Clark, D. et al. Livestock grazing in intermountain depressional wetlands: effects on breeding waterfowl. Wetlands Ecol Manage 25, 471–484 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-017-9529-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-017-9529-z