Abstract
Wear, which exists in all industries and walks of life, causes tremendous economic losses and even major disasters. To prevent damage caused by wear, Archard’s theory suggests the use of materials with higher hardness. However, such materials are minimally formable and difficult to manufacture. Recent studies have reported that strain hardening is another factor that significantly affects wear resistance. In this study, to investigate the relative potential of each of these factors and examine the balance between the hardness and work-hardening properties under various working conditions, we selected 321 austenitic stainless steel as a candidate material. Cold-rolling, which improves the base strength of the material, was used to develop strain-induced α′-martensite. Simultaneously, the strain-hardening capability of the material was decreased. The wear resistance and corresponding failure mechanisms were evaluated using the ball-on-disc test under various loading conditions. The results indicate that wear resistance depends on the bulk hardness and loading conditions used. A series of microstructural analyses revealed that the wear resistance is closely related to the base strength and hardening capability of the material. Therefore, this study establishes an optimum hardness–strain hardening balance and elucidates the design of low-hardness, high-wear-resistance materials for future applications.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
Trevisiol, C., Jourani, A., Bouvier, S.: Effect of hardness, microstructure, normal load and abrasive size on friction and on wear behaviour of 35NCD16 steel. Wear 388–389, 101–111 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.05.008
Das Bakshi, S., Sinha, D., Ghosh Chowdhury, S., Mahashabde, V.V.: Surface and sub-surface damage of 0.20 wt% C-martensite during three-body abrasion. Wear 394–395, 217–227 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.07.004
Das Bakshi, S., Shipway, P.H., Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H.: Three-body abrasive wear of fine pearlite, nanostructured bainite and martensite. Wear 308, 46–53 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2013.09.008
Tyfour, W.R., Beynon, J.H., Kapoor, A.: The steady state wear behaviour of pearlitic rail steel under dry rolling-sliding contact conditions. Wear 180, 79–89 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1648(94)06533-0
Moghaddam, P.V., Hardell, J., Vuorinen, E., Prakash, B.: The role of retained austenite in dry rolling/sliding wear of nanostructured carbide-free bainitic steels. Wear 428–429, 193–204 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.03.012
Tressia, G., Pereira, J.I., Penagos, J.J., Bortoleto, E., Sinatora, A.: Effect of in-service work hardening on the sliding wear resistance of a heavy haul rail in the gauge corner. Wear 482–483, 203979 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203979
Téllez-Villaseñor, M.A., León-Patiño, C.A., Aguilar-Reyes, E.A., Bedolla-Jacuinde, A.: Effect of load and sliding velocity on the wear behaviour of infiltrated TiC/Cu–Ni composites. Wear 484–485, 203667 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203667
Lim, S.C.: Recent developments in wear-mechanism maps. Tribol Int 31, 87–97 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-679x(98)00011-5
Liu, B., Li, W., Lu, X., Jia, X., Jin, X.: An integrated model of impact-abrasive wear in bainitic steels containing retained austenite. Wear 440–441, 203088 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.203088
Liu, B., Li, W., Lu, X., Jia, X., Jin, X.: The effect of retained austenite stability on impact-abrasion wear resistance in carbide-free bainitic steels. Wear 428–429, 127–136 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.02.032
Qin, W., Li, J., Liu, Y., Yue, W., Wang, C., Mao, Q., et al.: Effect of rolling strain on the mechanical and tribological properties of 316 L stainless steel. J. Tribol. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4041214
Fargas, G., Roa, J.J., Mateo, A.: Influence of pre-existing martensite on the wear resistance of metastable austenitic stainless steels. Wear 364–365, 40–47 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2016.06.018
Ueda, M., Uchino, K., Kobayashi, A.: Effects of carbon content on wear property in pearlitic steels. Wear 253, 107–113 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0043-1648(02)00089-3
Liu, R., Li, D.Y.: Modification of Archard’s equation by taking account of elastic/pseudoelastic properties of materials. Wear 251, 956–964 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0043-1648(01)00711-6
Lindroos, M., Valtonen, K., Kemppainen, A., Laukkanen, A., Holmberg, K., Kuokkala, V.-T.: Wear behavior and work hardening of high strength steels in high stress abrasion. Wear 322–323, 32–40 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2014.10.018
Viáfara, C.C., Castro, M.I., Vélez, J.M., Toro, A.: Unlubricated sliding wear of pearlitic and bainitic steels. Wear 259, 405–411 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2005.02.013
Zhang, G.-S., Xing, J.-D., Gao, Y.-M.: Impact wear resistance of WC/Hadfield steel composite and its interfacial characteristics. Wear 260, 728–734 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2005.04.010
Shukla, N., Roy, H., Show, B.K.: Tribological behavior of a 0.33% C dual-phase steel with Pre I/C hardening and tempering treatment under abrasive wear condition. Tribol T 59, 593–603 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/10402004.2015.1094841
Xu, X., van der Zwaag, S., Xu, W.: The effect of martensite volume fraction on the scratch and abrasion resistance of a ferrite–martensite dual phase steel. Wear 348–349, 80–88 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2015.11.017
Jha, A.K., Prasad, B.K., Modi, O.P., Das, S., Yegneswaran, A.H.: Correlating microstructural features and mechanical properties with abrasion resistance of a high strength low alloy steel. Wear 254, 120–128 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0043-1648(02)00309-5
Pöhl, F., Hardes, C., Theisen, W.: Deformation behavior and dominant abrasion micro mechanisms of tempering steel with varying carbon content under controlled scratch testing. Wear 422–423, 212–222 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.01.073
Souza Filho, I.R., Sandim, M.J.R., Ponge, D., Sandim, H.R.Z., Raabe, D.: Strain hardening mechanisms during cold rolling of a high-Mn steel: Interplay between submicron defects and microtexture. Mater Sci Eng A 754, 636–649 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.03.116
Shi, Y., Yuan, M., Li, Z., La, P.: Two-step rolling and annealing makes nanoscale 316L austenite stainless steel with high ductility. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 759, 391–395 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.05.054
Kim, M.T., Park, T.M., Baik, K.-H., Choi, W.S., Han, J.: Effects of cold rolling reduction ratio on microstructures and tensile properties of intercritically annealed medium-Mn steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 752, 43–54 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.02.091
He, Y., Zhang, J., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Wang, T.: The expansion behavior caused by deformation-induced martensite to austenite transformation in heavily cold-rolled metastable austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 739, 343–347 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.10.075
He, W., Li, F., Zhang, H., Chen, H., Guo, H.: The influence of cold rolling deformation on tensile properties and microstructures of Mn18Cr18 N austenitic stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138245
Benzing, J.T., da Silva, A.K., Morsdorf, L., Bentley, J., Ponge, D., Dutta, A., et al.: Multi-scale characterization of austenite reversion and martensite recovery in a cold-rolled medium-Mn steel. Acta Materialia 166, 512–530 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2019.01.003
Amininejad, A., Jamaati, R., Hosseinipour, S.J.: Achieving superior strength and high ductility in AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel via asymmetric cold rolling. Mater. Sci. Eng. A (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138433
Aletdinov, A., Mironov, S., Korznikova, G., Konkova, T., Zaripova, R., Myshlyaev, M., et al.: EBSD investigation of microstructure evolution during cryogenic rolling of type 321 metastable austenitic steel. Mater. Sci. Eng A 745, 460–473 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.12.115
Shintani, T., Murata, Y.: Evaluation of the dislocation density and dislocation character in cold rolled Type 304 steel determined by profile analysis of X-ray diffraction. Acta Materialia 59, 4314–4322 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.03.055
Hedayati, A., Najafizadeh, A., Kermanpur, A., Forouzan, F.: The effect of cold rolling regime on microstructure and mechanical properties of AISI 304L stainless steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 210, 1017–1022 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2010.02.010
De, A.K., Murdock, D.C., Mataya, M.C., Speer, J.G., Matlock, D.K.: Quantitative measurement of deformation-induced martensite in 304 stainless steel by X-ray diffraction. Scripta Materialia 50, 1445–1449 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2004.03.011
Takaki, S., Tomimura, K., Ueda, S.: Effect of Pre-cold-working on diffusional reversion of deformation induced martensite in metastable austenitic stainless steel. ISIJ Int. 34, 522–527 (1994). https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.34.522
Efremenko, V.G., Hesse, O., Friedrich, T., Kunert, M., Brykov, M.N., Shimizu, K., et al.: Two-body abrasion resistance of high-carbon high-silicon steel: metastable austenite vs nanostructured bainite. Wear 418–419, 24–35 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2018.11.003
Yan, X., Hu, J., Yu, H., Wang, C., Xu, W.: Unraveling the significant role of retained austenite on the dry sliding wear behavior of medium manganese steel. Wear (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203745
Saada, F.B., Antar, Z., Elleuch, K., Ponthiaux, P., Gey, N.: The effect of nanocrystallized surface on the tribocorrosion behavior of 304L stainless steel. Wear 394–395, 71–79 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.10.007
Li, G., Chen, J., Guan, D.: Friction and wear behaviors of nanocrystalline surface layer of medium carbon steel. Tribol. Int. 43, 2216–2221 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2010.07.004
Yan, W., Fang, L., Zheng, Z., Sun, K., Xu, Y.: Effect of surface nanocrystallization on abrasive wear properties in Hadfield steel. Tribol. Int. 42, 634–641 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2008.08.012
Zhang, F.C., Lei, T.Q.: A study of friction-induced martensitic transformation for austenitic manganese steel. Wear 212, 195–198 (1997)
Li, C.X., Bell, T.: Sliding wear properties of active screen plasma nitrided 316 austenitic stainless steel. Wear 256, 1144–1152 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2003.07.006
Zandrahimi, M., Bateni, M.R., Poladi, A., Szpunar, J.A.: The formation of martensite during wear of AISI 304 stainless steel. Wear 263, 674–678 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.107
Williams, J.A.: Analytical models of scratch hardness. Tribol. Int. 29, 675–694 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-679x(96)00014-x
Talonen, J., Hänninen, H.: Formation of shear bands and strain-induced martensite during plastic deformation of metastable austenitic stainless steels. Acta Materialia 55, 6108–6118 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2007.07.015
Funding
This project did not receive any specific public funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors state that they have no competing interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, H., Wang, L., Hu, J. et al. Optimum Wear Resistance Achieved by Balancing Bulk Hardness and Work-Hardening: A Case Study in Austenitic Stainless Steels. Tribol Lett 71, 7 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-022-01681-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11249-022-01681-5