Abstract
3He-rich solar energetic particles (SEPs), showing up to a 10,000-fold abundance enhancement of rare elements like 3He or ultra-heavy nuclei, have been a puzzle for more than 50 years. One reason for the current lack of understanding of 3He-rich SEPs is the difficulty resolving the source regions of these commonly occurring events. Since their discovery, there has been strong evidence that 3He-rich SEP production is associated with flares on the Sun. Anomalous abundances of 3He-rich SEPs have been attributed to a unique acceleration mechanism that must routinely operate at flare sites. Flares associated with 3He-rich SEPs have been often observed in jet-like forms indicating an acceleration in magnetic reconnection involving field lines open to interplanetary space. Owing to a fleet of spacecraft around the Sun, providing a greatly improved resolution of solar imaging observations, 3He-rich SEP sources are now explored in unprecedented detail. This paper outlines the current understanding of 3He-rich SEPs, mainly focusing on their solar sources.
References
K. Bronarska, M.S. Wheatland, N. Gopalswamy, G. Michalek, Very narrow coronal mass ejections producing solar energetic particles. Astron. Astrophys. 619, A34 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833237
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, U. Mall, A. Korth, G.M. Mason, Recurring 3He-rich solar energetic particle events, in 33rd Int. Cos. Ray Conf. (ICRC2013), vol. SH–EX (2013a). Paper ID 0552
R. Bučík, U. Mall, A. Korth, G.M. Mason, R. Gómez-Herrero, 3He-rich SEP events observed by STEREO-A, in Solar Wind 13, ed. by G.P. Zank, J. Borovsky, R. Bruno, J. Cirtain, S. Cranmer, H. Elliott, J. Giacalone, W. Gonzalez, G. Li, E. Marsch, E. Moebius, N. Pogorelov, J. Spann, O. Verkhoglyadova. AIP Conf. Proc., vol. 1539 (2013b), pp. 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4811007
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, U. Mall, A. Korth, G.M. Mason, R. Gómez-Herrero, Multi-spacecraft observations of recurrent 3He-rich solar energetic particles. Astrophys. J. 786(1), 71 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/786/1/71
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, N.H. Chen, G.M. Mason, R. Gómez-Herrero, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Long-lived energetic particle source regions on the Sun. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 642, 012002 (2015a). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/642/1/012002
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, L. Guo, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Observations of EUV waves in 3He-rich solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. 812(1), 53 (2015b). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/812/1/53
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Association of 3He-rich solar energetic particles with large-scale coronal waves. Astrophys. J. 833(1), 63 (2016a). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/833/1/63
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Energy spectra of 3He-rich solar energetic particles associated with coronal waves. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 767, 012002 (2016b). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/767/1/012002
R. Bučík, A. Fludra, R. Gómez-Herrero, D.E. Innes, B. Kellett, R. Kumar, Š. Mackovjak, Spectroscopic EUV observations of impulsive solar energetic particle event sources. Astron. Astrophys. 617, A40 (2018a). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201833120
R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, R. Gómez-Herrero, N.V. Nitta, 3He-rich solar energetic particles in helical jets on the Sun. Astrophys. J. 852(2), 76 (2018b). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aa9d8f
R. Bučík, M.E. Wiedenbeck, G.M. Mason, R. Gómez-Herrero, N.V. Nitta, L. Wang, 3He-rich solar energetic particles from sunspot jets. Astrophys. J. Lett. 869(1), L21 (2018c). https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/aaf37f
R. Bučík, M.E. Wiedenbeck et al., Solar sources of high energy 3He-rich particles. Astrophys. J. (2019, in preparation)
R.C. Canfield, K.P. Reardon, K.D. Leka, K. Shibata, T. Yokoyama, M. Shimojo, H alpha surges and X-ray jets in AR 7260. Astrophys. J. 464, 1016 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1086/177389
N.-H. Chen, R. Bučík, D.E. Innes, G.M. Mason, Case studies of multi-day 3He-rich solar energetic particle periods. Astron. Astrophys. 580, A16 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201525618
N.H. Chen, R. Bučík, R.S. Kim, Temperature of source regions of 3He-rich impulsive solar energetic particle events, in Space Weather of the Heliosphere: Processes and Forecasts, ed. by C. Foullon, O.E. Malandraki. IAU Sympos., vol. 335 (2018), pp. 14–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743921317007980
J.T. Dahlin, J.F. Drake, M. Swisdak, Electron acceleration in three-dimensional magnetic reconnection with a guide field. Phys. Plasmas 22(10), 100704 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4933212
W. Daughton, V. Roytershteyn, H. Karimabadi, L. Yin, B.J. Albright, B. Bergen, K.J. Bowers, Role of electron physics in the development of turbulent magnetic reconnection in collisionless plasmas. Nat. Phys. 7, 539–542 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphys1965
R. DiFabio, Z. Guo, E. Möbius, B. Klecker, H. Kucharek, G.M. Mason, M. Popecki, Energy-dependent charge states and their connection with ion abundances in impulsive solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. 687(1), 623–634 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1086/591833
J.F. Drake, P.A. Cassak, M.A. Shay, M. Swisdak, E. Quataert, A magnetic reconnection mechanism for ion acceleration and abundance enhancements in impulsive flares. Astrophys. J. Lett. 700(1), L16–L20 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/L16
D. Eichler, Ultraheavy element enrichment in impulsive solar flares. Astrophys. J. 794(1), 6 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/794/1/6
L.A. Fisk, 3He-rich flares: A possible explanation. Astrophys. J. 224, 1048–1055 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1086/156456
G.D. Fleishman, I.N. Toptygin, Stochastic particle acceleration by helical turbulence in solar flares. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 429(3), 2515–2526 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/sts518
J. Giacalone, J.R. Jokipii, The longitudinal transport of energetic ions from impulsive solar flares in interplanetary space. Astrophys. J. Lett. 751(2), L33 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1088/2041-8205/751/2/L33
G. Gloeckler, J. Geiss, Measurement of the abundance of helium-3 in the Sun and in the local interstellar cloud with SWICS on ULYSSES. Space Sci. Rev. 84, 275–284 (1998)
A.K. Higginson, S.K. Antiochos, C.R. DeVore, P.F. Wyper, T.H. Zurbuchen, Formation of heliospheric arcs of slow solar wind. Astrophys. J. Lett. 840(1), L10 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/aa6d72
G.D. Holman, DC electric field acceleration of ions in solar flares. Astrophys. J. 452, 451 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1086/176316
K.C. Hsieh, J.A. Simpson, The relative abundances and energy spectra of 3He and 4He from solar flares. Astrophys. J. Lett. 162, L191 (1970). https://doi.org/10.1086/180652
D.E. Innes, R. Bučík, L.J. Guo, N. Nitta, Observations of solar X-ray and EUV jets and their related phenomena. Astron. Nachr. 337(10), 1024 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/asna.201612428
N.L.S. Jeffrey, L. Fletcher, N. Labrosse, First evidence of non-Gaussian solar flare EUV spectral line profiles and accelerated non-thermal ion motion. Astron. Astrophys. 590, A99 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201527986
J.R. Jokipii, E.N. Parker, Stochastic aspects of magnetic lines of force with application to cosmic-ray propagation. Astrophys. J. 155, 777 (1969). https://doi.org/10.1086/149909
S.W. Kahler, R.P. Lin, D.V. Reames, R.G. Stone, M. Liggett, Characteristics of solar coronal source regions producing 3He-rich particle events. Sol. Phys. 107(2), 385–394 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00152032
S.W. Kahler, D.V. Reames, N.R. Sheeley Jr., Coronal mass ejections associated with impulsive solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. 562(1), 558–565 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1086/323847
S. Kahler, D. Reames, E. Cliver, Coronal sources of impulsive Fe-rich solar energetic particle events, in 34th Int. Cos. Ray Conf. (ICRC2015), Proc. of Sci. (2015). https://pos.sissa.it/236/049/pdf. Paper ID 49
Y.Y. Kartavykh, W. Dröge, B. Klecker, L. Kocharov, G.A. Kovaltsov, E. Möbius, Charge state formation of energetic ultraheavy ions in a hot plasma. Astrophys. J. 681(2), 1653–1659 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1086/588649
Y.Y. Kartavykh, W. Dröge, B. Klecker, G.A. Kovaltsov, V.M. Ostryakov, A possible enrichment of heavy and ultraheavy ions in solar energetic particle events due to a combined effect of stochastic acceleration and Coulomb losses. Astrophys. J. 888(1), 48 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ab584e
Y.O. Kazakov, J. Ongena, J.C. Wright, S.J. Wukitch, E. Lerche, M.J. Mantsinen, D. van Eester, T. Craciunescu, V.G. Kiptily, Y. Lin, M. Nocente, F. Nabais, M.F.F. Nave, Y. Baranov, J. Bielecki, R. Bilato, V. Bobkov, K. Crombé, A. Czarnecka, J.M. Faustin, R. Felton, M. Fitzgerald, D. Gallart, L. Giacomelli, T. Golfinopoulos, A.E. Hubbard, P. Jacquet, T. Johnson, M. Lennholm, T. Loarer, M. Porkolab, S.E. Sharapov, D. Valcarcel, M. van Schoor, H. Weisen, E.S. Marmar, S.G. Baek, H. Barnard, P. Bonoli, D. Brunner, J. Candy, J. Canik, R.M. Churchill, I. Cziegler, G. Dekow, L. Delgado-Aparicio, A. Diallo, E. Edlund, P. Ennever, I. Faust, C. Fiore, C. Gao, T. Golfinopoulos, M. Greenwald, Z.S. Hartwig, C. Holland, A.E. Hubbard, J.W. Hughes, I.H. Hutchinson, J. Irby, B. Labombard, Y. Lin, B. Lipschultz, A. Loarte, R. Mumgaard, R.R. Parker, M. Porkolab, M.L. Reinke, J.E. Rice, S. Scott, S. Shiraiwa, P. Snyder, B. Sorbom, D. Terry, J.L. Terry, C. Theiler, R. Vieira, J.R. Walk, G.M. Wallace, A. White, D. Whyte, S.M. Wolfe, G.M. Wright, J. Wright, S.J. Wukitch, P. Xu et al., Efficient generation of energetic ions in multi-ion plasmas by radio-frequency heating. Nat. Phys. 13(10), 973–978 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphys4167
L.G. Kocharov, G.E. Kocharov, 3He-rich solar flares. Space Sci. Rev. 38(1–2), 89–141 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00180337
L. Kocharov, J. Torsti, The origin of high-energy 3He-rich solar particle events. Astrophys. J. 586(2), 1430–1435 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1086/367882
L. Kocharov, G.A. Kovaltsov, J. Torsti, V.M. Ostryakov, Evaluation of solar energetic Fe charge states: Effect of proton-impact ionization. Astron. Astrophys. 357, 716–724 (2000)
L. Kocharov, J. Laivola, G.M. Mason, L. Didkovsky, D.L. Judge, Extended 3He-rich periods of solar energetic particles in structured solar wind. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 176(2), 497–510 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1086/527674
G.A. Kovaltsov, A.F. Barghouty, L. Kocharov, V.M. Ostryakov, J. Torsti, Charge-equilibration of Fe ions accelerated in a hot plasma. Astron. Astrophys. 375, 1075–1081 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20010877
D. Kramoliš, M. Varady, M. Bárta, R. Bučík, Ion acceleration in spontaneously cascading current sheet: Abundances of heavy ions. Astron. Astrophys. (2019, in preparation)
R. Kumar, D. Eichler, M. Gaspari, A. Spitkovsky, Preferential heating and acceleration of heavy ions in impulsive solar flares. Astrophys. J. 835(2), 295 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/835/2/295
E.J. Lee, V. Archontis, A.W. Hood, Helical blowout jets in the Sun: Untwisting and propagation of waves. Astrophys. J. Lett. 798(1), L10 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1088/2041-8205/798/1/L10
L. Li, J. Zhang, H. Peter, E. Priest, H. Chen, L. Guo, F. Chen, D. Mackay, Magnetic reconnection between a solar filament and nearby coronal loops. Nat. Phys. 12(9), 847–851 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphys3768
S. Liu, V. Petrosian, G.M. Mason, Stochastic acceleration of 3He and 4He in solar flares by parallel-propagating plasma waves: General results. Astrophys. J. 636(1), 462–474 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1086/497883
W. Liu, T.E. Berger, A.M. Title, T.D. Tarbell, B.C. Low, Chromospheric jet and growing “loop” observed by hinode: New evidence of fan-spine magnetic topology resulting from flux emergence. Astrophys. J. 728(2), 103 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/728/2/103
G.M. Mason, 3He-rich solar energetic particle events. Space Sci. Rev. 130(1–4), 231–242 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-007-9156-8
G.M. Mason, B. Klecker, A possible mechanism for enriching heavy ions in 3He-rich solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. 862(1), 7 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aac94c
G.M. Mason, D.V. Reames, B. Klecker, D. Hovestadt, T.T. von Rosenvinge, The heavy-ion compositional signature in 3He-rich solar particle events. Astrophys. J. 303, 849 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1086/164133
G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, 3He enhancements in large solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. Lett. 525(2), L133–L136 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1086/312349
G.M. Mason, J.R. Dwyer, J.E. Mazur, New properties of 3He-rich solar flares deduced from low-energy particle spectra. Astrophys. J. Lett. 545(2), L157–L160 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1086/317886
G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, A new heavy ion abundance enrichment pattern in 3He-rich solar particle events. Astrophys. J. Lett. 565(1), L51–L54 (2002a). https://doi.org/10.1086/339135
G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, J.A. Miller, J.E. Mazur, E.R. Christian, C.M.S. Cohen, A.C. Cummings, J.R. Dwyer, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, R.A. Leske, R.A. Mewaldt, P.L. Slocum, E.C. Stone, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Spectral properties of He and heavy ions in 3He-rich solar flares. Astrophys. J. 574(2), 1039–1058 (2002b). https://doi.org/10.1086/341112
G.M. Mason, J.E. Mazur, J.R. Dwyer, J.R. Jokipii, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, Abundances of heavy and ultraheavy ions in 3He-rich solar flares. Astrophys. J. 606(1), 555–564 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1086/382864
G.M. Mason, N.V. Nitta, C.M.S. Cohen, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Solar energetic particle 3He-rich events from the nearly quiet Sun in 2007–2008. Astrophys. J. Lett. 700(1), L56–L59 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/700/1/L56
G.M. Mason, N.V. Nitta, M.E. Wiedenbeck, D.E. Innes, Evidence for a common acceleration mechanism for enrichments of 3He and heavy ions in impulsive SEP events. Astrophys. J. 823(2), 138 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-637X/823/2/138
J.E. Mazur, G.M. Mason, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Fe-rich solar energetic particle events during solar minimum. Geophys. Res. Lett. 23(10), 1219–1222 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1029/96GL00046
J.A. Miller, Particle acceleration in impulsive solar flares. Space Sci. Rev. 86, 79–105 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005066209536
R.L. Moore, J.W. Cirtain, A.C. Sterling, D.A. Falconer, Dichotomy of solar coronal jets: Standard jets and blowout jets. Astrophys. J. 720(1), 757–770 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/720/1/757
N.V. Nitta, D.V. Reames, M.L. De Rosa, Y. Liu, S. Yashiro, N. Gopalswamy, Solar sources of impulsive solar energetic particle events and their magnetic field connection to the Earth. Astrophys. J. 650(1), 438–450 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1086/507442
N.V. Nitta, G.M. Mason, M.E. Wiedenbeck, C.M.S. Cohen, S. Krucker, I.G. Hannah, M. Shimojo, K. Shibata, Coronal jet observed by hinode as the source of a3He-rich solar energetic particle event. Astrophys. J. Lett. 675(2), L125 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1086/533438
N.V. Nitta, G.M. Mason, L. Wang, C.M.S. Cohen, M.E. Wiedenbeck, Solar sources of 3He-rich solar energetic particle events in solar cycle 24. Astrophys. J. 806(2), 235 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/235
M. Pick, G.M. Mason, Y.M. Wang, C. Tan, L. Wang, Solar source regions for 3He-rich solar energetic particle events identified using imaging radio, optical, and energetic particle observations. Astrophys. J. 648(2), 1247–1255 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1086/505926
D.V. Reames, Temperature dependence of the abundances of elements in solar 3He-rich events. Astrophys. J. Lett. 325, L53 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1086/185109
D.V. Reames, Energetic particles from impulsive solar flares. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 73, 235 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1086/191456
D.V. Reames, Particle acceleration at the Sun and in the heliosphere. Space Sci. Rev. 90, 413–491 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005105831781
D.V. Reames, Magnetic topology of impulsive and gradual solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. Lett. 571(1), L63–L66 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1086/341149
D.V. Reames, Solar Energetic Particles, vol. 932 (Springer, Berlin, 2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50871-9. ISBN 978-3-319-50870-2
D.V. Reames, Hydrogen and the abundances of elements in impulsive solar energetic-particle events. Sol. Phys. 294(4), 37 (2019a). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-019-1427-5
D.V. Reames, Excess H, suppressed He, and the abundances of elements in solar energetic particles. Sol. Phys. 294(10), 141 (2019b). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-019-1533-4
D.V. Reames, C.K. Ng, Heavy-element abundances in solar energetic particle events. Astrophys. J. 610(1), 510–522 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1086/421518
D.V. Reames, R.G. Stone, The identification of solar 3He-rich events and the study of particle acceleration at the Sun. Astrophys. J. 308, 902 (1986). https://doi.org/10.1086/164560
D.V. Reames, T.T. von Rosenvinge, R.P. Lin, Solar He-3-rich events and nonrelativistic electron events—A new association. Astrophys. J. 292, 716–724 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1086/163203
D.V. Reames, B.R. Dennis, R.G. Stone, R.P. Lin, X-ray and radio properties of solar 3He-rich events. Astrophys. J. 327, 998 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1086/166257
D.V. Reames, H.V. Cane, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Energetic particle abundances in solar electron events. Astrophys. J. 357, 259 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1086/168912
D.V. Reames, J.P. Meyer, T.T. von Rosenvinge, Energetic-particle abundances in impulsive solar flare events. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 90, 649 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1086/191887
D.V. Reames, E.W. Cliver, S.W. Kahler, Abundance enhancements in impulsive solar energetic-particle events with associated coronal mass ejections. Sol. Phys. 289(10), 3817–3841 (2014a). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-014-0547-1
D.V. Reames, E.W. Cliver, S.W. Kahler, Variations in abundance enhancements in impulsive solar energetic-particle events and related CMEs and flares. Sol. Phys. 289(12), 4675–4689 (2014b). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-014-0589-4
D.V. Reames, E.W. Cliver, S.W. Kahler, Temperature of the source plasma for impulsive solar energetic particles. Sol. Phys. 290(6), 1761–1774 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-015-0711-2
O.A. Schaeffer, J. Zähringer, Solar flare helium in satellite materials. Phys. Rev. Lett. 8(10), 389–390 (1962). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.8.389
R.B. Scott, D.I. Pontin, A.R. Yeates, P.F. Wyper, A.K. Higginson, Magnetic structures at the boundary of the closed corona: Interpretation of S-web arcs. Astrophys. J. 869(1), 60 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aaed2b
K. Shibata, Y. Ishido, L.W. Acton, K.T. Strong, T. Hirayama, Y. Uchida, A.H. McAllister, R. Matsumoto, S. Tsuneta, T. Shimizu, H. Hara, T. Sakurai, K. Ichimoto, Y. Nishino, Y. Ogawara, Observations of X-ray jets with the YOHKOH soft X-ray telescope. Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 44, L173–L179 (1992)
P. Sprangle, L. Vlahos, Electron cyclotron wave acceleration outside a flaring loop. Astrophys. J. Lett. 273, L95–L99 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1086/184137
A.C. Sterling, R.L. Moore, D.A. Falconer, M. Adams, Small-scale filament eruptions as the driver of X-ray jets in solar coronal holes. Nature 523(7561), 437–440 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14556
M. Temerin, I. Roth, The production of 3He and heavy ion enrichments in 3He-rich flares by electromagnetic hydrogen cyclotron waves. Astrophys. J. Lett. 391, L105 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1086/186408
J. Torsti, L. Kocharov, J. Laivola, N. Lehtinen, M.L. Kaiser, M.J. Reiner, Solar particle event with exceptionally high 3He enhancement in the energy range up to 50 MeV nucleon−1. Astrophys. J. Lett. 573(1), L59–L63 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1086/341936
J. Torsti, L. Kocharov, J. Laivola, I. Chertok, B.J. Thompson, High-energy 3He-rich solar particle events. Sol. Phys. 214(1), 177–193 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024091002078
Y.M. Wang, M. Pick, G.M. Mason, Coronal holes, jets, and the origin of 3He-rich particle events. Astrophys. J. 639(1), 495–509 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1086/499355
L. Wang, R.P. Lin, S. Krucker, G.M. Mason, A statistical study of solar electron events over one solar cycle. Astrophys. J. 759(1), 69 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/759/1/69
L. Wang, S. Krucker, G.M. Mason, R.P. Lin, G. Li, The injection of ten electron/3He-rich SEP events. Astron. Astrophys. 585, A119 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201527270
A. Warmuth, Large-scale globally propagating coronal waves. Living Rev. Sol. Phys. 12(1), 3 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/lrsp-2015-3
M.E. Wiedenbeck, G.M. Mason, C.M.S. Cohen, N.V. Nitta, R. Gómez-Herrero, D.K. Haggerty, Observations of solar energetic particles from 3He-rich events over a wide range of heliographic longitude. Astrophys. J. 762(1), 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/762/1/54
M.E. Wiedenbeck, R. Bučík, G.M. Mason, G.C. Ho, R.A. Leske, C.M.S. Cohen, E.R. Christian, A.C. Cummings, A.J. Davis, M.I. Desai, J. Giacalone, D.K. Haggerty, M.E. Hill, C.J. Joyce, A.W. Labrador, O. Maland raki, W.H. Matthaeus, D.J. McComas, R.L. McNutt Jr., R.A. Mewaldt, D.G. Mitchell, A. Posner, J.S. Rankin, E.C. Roelof, N.A. Schwadron, E.C. Stone, J.R. Szalay, S.D. Bale, A.W. Case, J.C. Kasper, K.E. Korreck, D.E. Larson, R.J. MacDowall, M. Pulupa, M.L. Stevens, 3He-rich solar energetic particle observations at the Parker Solar Probe and near Earth. Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser. 246(2), 42 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/ab5963
R.M. Winglee, Heating and acceleration of heavy ions during solar flares. Astrophys. J. 343, 511 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1086/167726
T.X. Zhang, An explanation for huge enhancements of ultraheavy ions in solar 3He-rich events. Astrophys. J. Lett. 617(1), L77–L80 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1086/427169
M. Zhang, L. Zhao, Precipitation and release of solar energetic particles from the solar coronal magnetic field. Astrophys. J. 846(2), 107 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/aa86a8
R.D. Zwickl, E.C. Roelof, R.E. Gold, S.M. Krimigis, T.P. Armstrong, Z-rich solar particle event characteristics. Astrophys. J. 225, 281–303 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1086/156491
Acknowledgements
Figures 1–3, 5–7 reproduced with the permission of AAS. Figure 8 reprinted with the permission of AIP Publishing. The author thanks Davina Innes and Glenn Mason for the careful reading of the manuscript. The paper also benefit greatly from the discussions at the ISSI International Team ID 425 ‘Origins of 3He-rich SEPs’ led by R. Bučík and J.F. Drake. The work was partly supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) grant BU 3115/4-1 and NASA grant 80NSSC19K0079.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bučík, R. 3He-Rich Solar Energetic Particles: Solar Sources. Space Sci Rev 216, 24 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00650-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00650-5