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Formation and Evolution of Protoatmospheres

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Abstract

The origin and evolution of planetary protoatmospheres in relation to the protoplanetary disk is discussed. The initial atmospheres of planets can mainly be related via two formation scenarios. If a protoplanetary core accretes mass and grows inside the gas disk, it can capture H2, He and other gases from the disk. When the gas of the disk evaporates, the core that is surrounded by the H2/He gas envelope is exposed to the high X-ray and extreme ultraviolet flux and stellar wind of the young host star. This period can be considered as the onset of atmospheric escape. It is shown that lower mass bodies accrete less gas and depending on the host stars radiation environment can therefore lose the gaseous envelope after tens or hundreds of million years. Massive cores may never get rid of their captured hydrogen envelopes and remain as sub-Neptunes, Neptunes or gas giants for their whole life time. Terrestrial planets which may have lost the captured gas envelope by thermal atmospheric escape, or which accreted after the protoplanetary nebula vanished will produce catastrophically outgassed steam atmospheres during the magma ocean solidification process. These steam atmospheres consist mainly of water and CO2 that was incorporated into the protoplanet during its accretion. Planets, which are formed in the habitable zone, solidify within several million years. In such cases the outgassed steam atmospheres cool fast, which leads to the condensation of water and the formation of liquid oceans. On the other hand, magma oceans are sustained for longer if planets form inside a critical distance, even if they outgassed a larger initial amount of water. In such cases the steam atmosphere could remain 100 million years or for even longer. Hydrodynamic atmospheric escape will then desiccate these planets during the slow solidification process.

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Acknowledgements

The authors greatly acknowledge both of the reviewers for their careful reading of our manuscript and valuable suggestions. H. Massol, P. Sarda, A. Davaille, E. Chassefière, E. Marcq and F. Leblanc are supported by the 2016 PNP program of INSU-CNRS. F. Tian is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41175039), the Startup Fund of the Ministry of Education of China, and the Tsinghua University Initiative Science Research Program (523001028). V. Shematovich acknowledges the support by the Russian Science Foundation Project No. 14-12-01048. H. Lammer acknowledges support by the FWF NFN project S11601-N16 ‘Pathways to Habitability: From Disks to Active Stars, Planets and Life’, and the related FWF NFN subproject, S11607-N16 ‘Particle/Radiative Interactions with Upper Atmospheres of Planetary Bodies Under Extreme Stellar Conditions’, as well as the FWF project P27256-N27 ‘Characterizing Stellar and Exoplanetary Environments via Modeling of Lyman-\(\alpha\) Transit Observations of Hot Jupiters’. K. Hamano and Y. Abe are supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (No. 23103003) and K. Hamano by a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (No. 26800242). Y. Hori is supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (No. 26103711) from MEXT. M. Ikoma is supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (No. 23103005) and Scientific Research (C) (No. 25400224) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) of Japan. Finally the authors thank the International Space Science Institute (ISSI) and ISSI-Beijing in Bern and Beijing.

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Author notes

  1. K. Hamano

    Present address: Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Authors and Affiliations

  1. GEOPS, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France

    H. Massol, E. Chassefière & P. Sarda

  2. Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

    K. Hamano, M. Ikoma & Y. Abe

  3. National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

    F. Tian

  4. Lab. FAST, UMR 7608 CNRS-Université de Paris-Sud, Orsay, France

    A. Davaille

  5. Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

    H. Genda

  6. Institute of Astronomy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    M. Güdel & A. Stökl

  7. National Astronomical Observatory of Japan/Astrobiology Center, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

    Y. Hori

  8. Lab. LATMOS, UMR 9190 CNRS, Guyancourt, France

    F. Leblanc & E. Marcq

  9. Department of Solar System Research, Institute of Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

    V. I. Shematovich

  10. Austrian Academy of Sciences Space Research Institute, Graz, Austria

    H. Lammer

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Massol, H., Hamano, K., Tian, F. et al. Formation and Evolution of Protoatmospheres. Space Sci Rev 205, 153–211 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0280-1

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