Abstract
The present study set out to better understand how sexual entertainment media may be related to college students’ heteronormative beliefs about sexuality and how these beliefs may be related to college students’ hesitance toward resisting unwanted hookups. In a 2-month two-panel survey, cross-lagged models found 292 U.S. college women’s sexual media habits were related to higher endorsement of heteronormative scripts, and their endorsement of heteronormative scripts were related to a hesitance toward resisting unwanted hookups. In addition, a half longitudinal mediation model found college women’s sexual media habits were indirectly related to a greater hesitance toward resisting unwanted hookups through their endorsement of heteronormative scripts. The same analyses involving 88 U.S. college men were not significant, although the sample size for men did not reach the level needed for statistical power. These results provide some initial evidence that college women’s, but not men’s, hesitance toward resisting unwanted hookups could be related to beliefs reinforced by their habits regarding sexual entertainment media, which suggests the importance of educating young adult women about sexual agency, consent, and how to combat the role to which they are relegated within heteronormative scripts.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.
Arnett, J. J. (2002). The sounds of sex: Sex in teens’ music and music videos. In J. D. Brown, J. R. Steele, & K. Walsh-Childers (Eds.), Sexual teens, sexual media: Investigating media’s influence on adolescent sexuality (pp. 253–262). Mahwah: L. Erlbaum.
Aubrey, J. S., & Smith, S. (2015). The impact of exposure to sexually oriented media on the endorsement of hookup culture: A panel study of first-year college students. Mass Communication and Society, 47(5), 404–411. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2015.1070875.
Aubrey, J. S., Harrison, K., Kramer, L., & Yellin, J. (2003). Variety versus timing: Gender differences in college students’ sexual expectations as predicted by exposure to sexually oriented television. Communication Research, 30(4), 432–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650203253365.
Aubrey, J. S., Hopper, K. M., & Mbure, W. G. (2011). Check that body! The effects of sexually objectifying music videos on college men’s sexual beliefs. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 55(3), 360–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2011.597469.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Bay-Cheng, L. Y., & Eliseo-Arras, R. K. (2008). The making of unwanted sex: Gendered and neoliberal norms in college women’s unwanted sexual experiences. Journal of Sex Research, 45(4), 386–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802398381.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238.
Bogle, K. A. (2008). Hooking up: Sex, dating, and relationships on campus. New York: NYU Press.
Bohner, G. (1998). Vergewaltigungsmythen [Rape myths]. Landau: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik.
Bohner, G., Siebler, F., & Schmelcher, J. (2006). Social norms and the likelihood of raping: Perceived rape myth acceptance of others affects men’s rape proclivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205280912.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). A new incremental fit index for general structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 17(3), 303–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124189017003004.
Brinson, S. L. (1992). The use and opposition of rape myths in prime-time television dramas. Sex Roles, 27(7–8), 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289945.
Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York: Guilford Press.
Brown, J. D., L’Engle, K. L., Pardun, C. J., Guo, G., Kenneavy, K., & Jackson, C. (2006). Sexy media matter: Exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines predicts black and white adolescents’ sexual behavior. Pediatrics, 117(4), 1018–1027. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1406.
Bufkin, J., & Eschholz, S. (2000). Images of sex and rape: A content analysis of popular film. Violence Against Women, 6(12), 1317–1344. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801200006012002.
Burnett, A., Mattern, J. L., Herakova, L. L., Kahl, D. H., Tobola, C., & Bornsen, S. E. (2009). Communicating/muting date rape: A co-cultural theoretical analysis of communication factors related to rape culture on a college campus. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 37(4), 465–485. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880903233150.
Cantor, D., Fisher, B. S., Chibnall, S., Townsend, R., Lee, H., Bruce, C., … Thomas, G. (2015). AAU campus climate survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. Rockville: The Association of American Universities. Retrieved from https://www.aau.edu/key-issues/aau-climate-survey-sexual-assault-and-sexual-misconduct-2015.
Carpenter, L. M. (1998). From girls into women: Scripts for sexuality and romance in seventeen magazine, 1974–1994. Journal of Sex Research, 35(2), 158–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499809551929.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5.
Claxton, S. E., DeLuca, H. K., & van Dulmen, M. H. M. (2015). The association between alcohol use and engagement in casual sexual relationships and experiences: A meta-analytic review of non-experimental studies. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44(4), 837–856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0392-1.
Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.112.4.558.
Collins, R. L. (2011). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? Sex Roles, 64(3–4), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5.
Conroy, N. E., Krishnakumar, A., & Leone, J. M. (2014). Reexamining issues of conceptualization and willing consent: The hidden role of coercion in experiences of sexual acquiescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(11), 1828–1846. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514549050.
Crawford, M., & Popp, D. (2003). Sexual double standards: A review and methodological critique of two decades of research. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(1), 13–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552163.
Crawford, J., Kippax, S., & Waldby, C. (1994). Women’s sex talk and men’s sex talk: Different worlds. Feminism & Psychology, 4(4), 571–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353594044010.
Durham, M. G. (1998). Dilemmas of desire: Representations of adolescent sexuality in two teen magazines. Youth & Society, 29(3), 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X98029003005.
Eaton, A. A., & Matamala, A. (2014). The relationship between heteronormative beliefs and verbal sexual coercion in college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(7), 1443–1457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0284-4.
Eaton, A. A., & Rose, S. (2011). Has dating become more egalitarian? A 35 year review using Sex Roles. Sex Roles, 64(11–12), 843–862. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9957-9.
Emmers-Sommer, T. M., Pauley, P., Hanzal, A., & Triplett, L. (2006). Love, suspense, sex, and violence: Men’s and women’s film predilections, exposure to sexually violent media, and their relationship to rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 55(5–6), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9085-0.
Fielder, R. L., & Carey, M. P. (2010). Predictors and consequences of sexual “hookups” among college students: A short-term prospective study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(5), 1105–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9448-4.
Fielder, R. L., Carey, K. B., & Carey, M. P. (2013). Are hookups replacing romantic relationships? A longitudinal study of first-year female college students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(5), 657–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.09.001.
Fielder, R. L., Walsh, J. L., Carey, K. B., & Carey, M. P. (2014). Sexual hookups and adverse health outcomes: A longitudinal study of first-year college women. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.848255.
Finkelhor, D., & Yllö, K. (1987). License to rape: Sexual abuse of wives. New York: Free Press.
Flack, W. F., Daubman, K. A., Caron, M. L., Asadorian, J. A., D’Aureli, N. R., Gigliotti, S. N., … Stine, E. R. (2007). Risk factors and consequences of unwanted sex among university students: Hooking up, alcohol, and stress response. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(2), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260506295354.
Gagnon, J. H., & Simon, W. (1973). Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.
Gagnon, J. H., & Simon, W. (1974). Sexual conduct. London: Hutchison.
Gamble, H. (2016). From sexual media to unwanted hookups: The mediating influence of college students’ endorsement of traditional heterosexual scripts, sexual self-concept, and perceived peer norms (unpublished dissertation). Tucson: University of Arizona. Retrieved from https://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/621020.
Gamble, H., & Nelson, L. R. (2015). Sex in college relationships: The role television plays in emerging adults’ sexual expectations in relationships. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2015.1049635.
Garcia, J. R., Reiber, C., Massey, S. G., & Merriwether, A. M. (2012). Sexual hookup culture: A review. Review of General Psychology, 16(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027911.
Gavey, N. (1992). Technologies and effects of heterosexual coercion. Feminism & Psychology, 2(3), 325–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353592023003.
Guttmacher Institute. (2013). Facts on American teens’ sexual and reproductive health. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-ATSRH.pdf.
Hansen, C., & Hansen, R. (2000). Music and music videos. In D. Zillmann & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 131–146). Mahwah: Routledge.
Heldman, C., & Wade, L. (2010). Hook-up culture: Setting a new research agenda. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 7(4), 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-010-0024-z.
Hickman, S. E., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (1997). College women’s fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 527–547. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00129.x.
Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42(3), 125–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1986.tb00246.x.
Jackson, S. (2006). Interchanges: Gender, sexuality and heterosexuality: The complexity (and limits) of heteronormativity. Feminist Theory, 7(1), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700106061462.
Joshi, S. P., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2010). Ambivalent messages in seventeen magazine: A content analytic comparison of 1997 and 2007. Journal of Magazine & New Media Research, 12(1), 1–20.
Joshi, S. P., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011). Scripts of sexual desire and danger in us and dutch teen girl magazines: A cross-national content analysis. Sex Roles, 64(7–8), 463–474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9941-4.
Kahlor, L., & Eastin, M. S. (2011). Television’s role in the culture of violence toward women: A study of television viewing and the cultivation of rape myth acceptance in the United States. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 55(2), 215–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2011.566085.
Katz, J., Tirone, V., & van der Kloet, E. (2012). Moving in and hooking up: Women and men’s casual sexual experiences during the first 2 months of college. The Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 15. Retrieved from http://mail.ejhs.org/volume15/Hookingup.html.
Kim, J. L., & Ward, L. M. (2004). Pleasure reading: Associations between young women’s sexual attitudes and their reading of contemporary women’s magazines. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00122.x.
Kim, J. L., Lynn Sorsoli, C., Collins, K., Zylbergold, B. A., Schooler, D., & Tolman, D. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701263660.
Kitzinger, C. (2005). Heteronormativity in action: Reproducing the heterosexual nuclear family in after-hours medical calls. Social Problems, 52(4), 477–498. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2005.52.4.477.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study (No. 221153). National Institute for justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf.
Leigh, B. C. (1989). Reasons for having and avoiding sex: Gender, sexual orientation, and relationship to sexual behavior. Journal of Sex Research, 26(2), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498909551506.
Lewis, M. A., Granato, H., Blayney, J. A., Lostutter, T. W., & Kilmer, J. R. (2012). Predictors of hooking up sexual behaviors and emotional reactions among U.S. college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(5), 1219–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9817-2.
Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x.
Maas, M. K., Shearer, C. L., Gillen, M. M., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2015). Sex rules: Emerging adults’ perceptions of gender’s impact on sexuality. Sexuality & Culture, 19(4), 617–636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9281-6.
Martin, K. A., & Kazyak, E. (2009). Hetero-romantic love and heterosexiness in children’s g-rated films. Gender & Society, 23(3), 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243209335635.
Masters, N. T., Casey, E., Wells, E. A., & Morrison, D. M. (2013). Sexual scripts among young heterosexually active men and women: Continuity and change. Journal of Sex Research, 50(5), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.661102.
Maticka-Tyndale, E., Herold, E. S., & Mewhinney, D. (1998). Casual sex on spring break: Intentions and behaviors of Canadian students. The Journal of Sex Research, 35(3), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.2307/3813245.
McMahon, S. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American College Health, 59(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.483715.
Menard, S. (1991). Longitudinal research. Newbury Park: Sage.
Monto, M. A., & Carey, A. G. (2014). A new standard of sexual behavior? Are claims associated with the “hookup culture” supported by general social survey data? The Journal of Sex Research, 51(6), 605–615. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.906031.
Morgan, E. M. (2013). Contemporary issues in sexual orientation and identity development in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 52–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812469187.
Morokoff, P. J., Quina, K., Harlow, L. L., Whitmire, L., Grimley, D. M., Gibson, P. R., … Burkholder, G. J. (1997). Sexual assertiveness scale (SAS) for women: Development and validation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 790–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.790.
Motley, M. T., & Reeder, H. M. (1995). Unwanted escalation of sexual intimacy: Male and female perceptions of connotations and relational consequences of resistance messages. Communication Monographs, 62(4), 355–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759509376367.
Muehlenhard, C. L., & Rodgers, C. S. (1998). Token resistance to sex: New perspectives on an old stereotype. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22(3), 443–463. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00167.x.
O’Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2002). Epidemiology of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement, 63(2), 23–39. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.23.
Osman, S. L. (1998). The token resistance to sex scale. In C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, & R. Bauserman (Eds.), Handbook of sexuality-related measures (pp. 567–568). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Owen, J. J., & Fincham, F. D. (2011). Young adults’ emotional reactions after hooking up encounters. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9652-x.
Owens, J., Bower, G., & Black, J. (1979). The “soap opera” effect in story recall. Memory & Cognition, 7(3), 185–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197537.
Paul, E. L., & Hayes, K. A. (2002). The casualties of `casual’ sex: A qualitative exploration of the phenomenology of college students’ hookups. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19(5), 639–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407502195006.
Paxton, S. J., Norris, M., Wertheim, E. H., Durkin, S. J., & Anderson, J. (2005). Body dissatisfaction, dating, and importance of thinness to attractiveness in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 53(9–10), 663–675. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7732-5.
Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33(1), 27–68. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2238.
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2016). Adolescents and pornography: A review of 20 years of research. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 509–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441.
Peters, S. J. (2012). Let’s talk about sex: The influence of a sexy media diet on college freshmen’s endorsement of the hookup culture, peer influence, and behaviors regarding casual sex and sexual risk taking (dissertation). University of Missouri–Columbia. Retrieved from https://mospace.library.umsystem.edu/xmlui/handle/10355/15894.
Peterson, Z. D., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (2004). Was it rape? The function of women’s rape myth acceptance and definitions of sex in labeling their own experiences. Sex Roles, 51(3/4), 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037758.95376.00.
R Development Core Team. (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing Retrieved from http://www.R-project.org/.
Rennison, C. M. (2001). Criminal victimization 2000: Changes 1999-2000 with trends, 1993-2000 (p. 16). Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/cv00.pdf.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02.
Sakaluk, J. K., Todd, L. M., Milhausen, R., Lachowsky, N. J., & Undergraduate Research Group in Sex. (2014). Dominant heterosexual sexual scripts in emerging adulthood: Conceptualization and measurement. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(5), 516–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.745473.
Sanchez, D. T., Crocker, J., & Boike, K. R. (2005). Doing gender in the bedroom: Investing in gender norms and the sexual experience. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1445–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277333.
Seabrook, R. C., Ward, L. M., Reed, L., Manago, A., Giaccardi, S., & Lippman, J. R. (2016). Our scripted sexuality: The development and validation of a measure of the heterosexual script and its relation to television consumption. Emerging Adulthood, 4(5), 338–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815623686.
Short, M. B., Black, L., Smith, A. H., Wetterneck, C. T., & Wells, D. E. (2012). A review of internet pornography use research: Methodology and content from the past 10 years. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0477.
Shulman, S., & Connolly, J. (2013). The challenge of romantic relationships in emerging adulthood: Reconceptualization of the field. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812467330.
Simon, W., & Gagnon, J. H. (1986). Sexual scripts: Permanence and change. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 15(2), 97–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01542219.
Slater, M. D. (2007). Reinforcing spirals: The mutual influence of media selectivity and media effects and their impact on individual behavior and social identity. Communication Theory, 17(3), 281–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00296.x.
Smith, S. H. (2012). Scripting sexual desire: Cultural scenarios of teen girls’ sexual desire in popular films, 2000–2009. Sexuality & Culture, 16(3), 321–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-012-9126-5.
Smith, S. G., Chen, J., Basile, K. C., Gilbert, L. K., Merrick, M. T., Patel, N., … Jain, A. (2017). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010-2012 state report (p. 272). Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/NISVS-StateReportBook.pdf.
Sommers-Flanagan, R., Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Davis, B. (1993). What’s happening on music television? A gender role content analysis. Sex Roles, 28(11–12), 745–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289991.
Sönmez, S., Apostolopoulos, Y., Yu, C. H., Yang, S., Mattila, A., & Yu, L. C. (2006). Binge drinking and casual sex on spring break. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(4), 895–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2006.06.005.
Soper, D. (2015). A-priori sample size calculator for structural equation models. Retrieved from http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc.
Steele, J. R., & Brown, J. D. (1995). Adolescent room culture: Studying media in the context of everyday life. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 551–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537056.
Stern, S. R., & Brown, J. D. (2008). From twin beds to sex at your fingertips teen sexuality in movies, music, television, and the internet, 1950 to 2005. In P. Jamieson & D. Romer (Eds.), The changing portrayal of adolescents in the media since 1950 (pp. 313–343). New York: Oxford University Press.
ter Bogt, T. F. M., Engels, R. C. M. E., Bogers, S., & Kloosterman, M. (2010). “Shake it baby, shake it”: Media preferences, sexual attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles, 63(11–12), 844–859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9815-1.
Tolman, D. L., Kim, J. L., Schooler, D., & Sorsoli, C. L. (2007). Rethinking the associations between television viewing and adolescent sexuality development: Bringing gender into focus. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(1), 84.e9–84.e16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.08.002.
Treat, T. A., Farris, C. A., Viken, R. J., & Smith, J. R. (2015). Influence of sexually degrading music on men’s perceptions of women’s dating-relevant cues. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29(1), 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3084.
van Oosten, J. M. F., Peter, J., & Boot, I. (2015a). Women’s critical responses to sexually explicit material: The role of hyperfemininity and processing style. The Journal of Sex Research, 52(3), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.858305.
van Oosten, J. M. F., Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2015b). The influence of sexual music videos on adolescents’ misogynistic beliefs the role of video content, gender, and affective engagement. Communication Research, 42(7), 986–1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650214565893.
Ward, L. M. (1995). Talking about sex: Common themes about sexuality in the prime-time television programs children and adolescents view most. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24(5), 595–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537058.
Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014068031532.
Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23(3), 347–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-2297(03)00013-3.
Ward, L. M., & Rivadeneyra, R. (1999). Contributions of entertainment television to adolescents’ sexual attitudes and expectations: The role of viewing amount versus viewer involvement. Journal of Sex Research, 36(3), 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499909551994.
Wright, P. J. (2009). Sexual socialization messages in mainstream entertainment mass media: A review and synthesis. Sexuality & Culture, 13(4), 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-009-9050-5.
Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1986). Human cognition in its social context. Psychological Review, 93(3), 322–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.93.3.322.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
This research involved human subjects and was in compliance with the Auburn University Montgomery Institutional Review Board.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(DOCX 35 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gamble, H. Acquiescing to the Script: A Panel Study of College Students’ Sexual Media Habits, Endorsement of Heteronormative Scripts, and Their Hesitance Toward Resisting Unwanted Hookups. Sex Roles 80, 707–723 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0971-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0971-z