Abstract
In acknowledgement of the complexity of environmental challenges, research on learning in environmental policy has grown substantially over the past two decades across a range of disciplines. Despite this growth, there are few comprehensive assessments of the literature on learning in environmental policy. This article fills this gap by providing insights on the overall coherence and impact of this body of scholarship. To do so, we analyze a sample of 163 articles from 2004 to 2014 using a standardized coding framework. The results provide an in-depth assessment of the status of the literature on learning in the context of environmental policy, as well as the quality of the literature. We demonstrate that despite the diversity in research questions and goals, the literature is lacking with respect to diversity in cases and context, theoretical development, clear conceptualization and operationalization of learning, and advancements in empirical approaches to study learning. From these insights, we discuss the challenges and opportunities for scholars in studying learning and provide recommendations for building the theoretical and methodological rigor of the field.
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Notes
As an example, when we searched “learning” AND “environmental” AND “governance”, we found 248 initial results through our Scopus search and 258 articles through our Web of Science search.
The search engines Scopus and Web of Science rely on specific algorithms are to determine relevance, based on multiple factors. Please see: https://help.elsevier.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/7439/p/8150/c/7956,8267.
The enormous size of the overall population of articles identified prohibited us from reading and assessing the complete set of articles. We elected not to sample randomly, which would have potentially missed significant and relevant articles in the field, and resulted in a significant number of false positives. Rather, we relied on the search engines to sort by relevance and provide a representative sample of relevant articles.
Six of the 21 fields originally had lower than 80% agreement. The coding instructions on these six fields were modified to improve agreement. Instances of disagreement on these six fields were then discussed by the five coders in order to achieve 100% agreement on a second subset of the population of articles. For the final analyses of other fields, the coding team resolved instances of disagreement for articles with multiple coders using discussion among the coders. See “Appendix 2” for Summary statistics of coded items.
See “Appendix 3” for a listing of all of the articles included in our analysis.
Although the research team did not code whether the authors directly measure learning, the authors will be analyzing the measurement approach to learning in the sample of articles more directly in a follow-up study.
In analyzing the data, we noticed that when some authors talked about factors that enable learning, they sometimes actually referred to venues where learning may take place.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Codebook
Coding fields | Decision rulesc | Type of entry | Percent agreement | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Article ID (unique) | Text | – | |
2 | Coder last name | Text | – | |
3 | Author/s last name | Text | – | |
4 | Year of Publication | Text | – | |
5a | Journal | Text | – | |
5b | Journal type: 1 = policy/politics, 2 = management/planning/EIA, 3 = resource-specific (land/water/energy/climate), 4 = ecology/natural resources 5 = other | Code based on description of journals from their websites | Typology | 100b |
6 | Article title | Text | – | |
7a | Is the research question or goal around learning stated in the paper? | Look at Introduction for direct evidence of an objective around learning. If uncertain mark no | Yes or no | 100a |
7b | If yes, then what is the research question (or goal of the paper if a question is not stated)? | Quote text directly from article or paraphrase | Text | – |
8 | Is learning central to the paper or a key concept to study (as a key outcome, key IV or DV)? | Learning must be a variable, which may or may not be explicitly presented | Yes or no | 97.55 |
9 | Does the author state that developing theories and frameworks around learning is one of the goals of the paper? | Must be a primary goal of the paper. Theory or framework development constitutes a major contribution | Yes or no | 85.22 |
10 | Does the author intend to empirically test their theory or framework? | May be explicitly stated, or may be inferred from the explanation of the research design | Yes or no | 82.80 |
11a | Is learning defined? | Explicit language must be used… Examples: “We define learning as…” “We see learning as…” “We borrow Smith’s definition of learning…” May be narrow or broad, and presented at any point in the article. Must define, not just describe. Must be relevant to article | Yes or no | 100a |
11b | If yes, provide description of definition. | Quote text directly from article | Text | – |
12a | Do the authors identify specific venues associated with learning? | May be theoretical or part of empirical analysis. May include: Workshops, stakeholder forums, boundary/bridging organizations, environmental assessment process, policy game/experiment/modeling | Yes or no | 100a |
12b | Venue type: 0 = NA, 1 = meeting/workshop/forum/working group/focus group/training sessions/seminars, 2 = boundary/bridging org, 3 = environmental assessment process/scientific and policy assessments, 4 = policy game/experiment/modeling, 5 = network, 6 = multi-stakeholder (non-specific)/co-management process/collaborative process/non-specific participatory process, 7 = organizational body or bodies (watershed associations/farmer organizations/committees/business alliances/management bodies/technical review panels/advisory councils), 8 = other | Rely on text used by authors. May quote authors directly. Based on text, classify as specific venue type | Typology | 100b |
13a | Do the authors pinpoint a theory or framework that is a primary guide for their paper? | Look for language of “theory” or “framework” The theory or framework must guide paper. Must be explicit in approach and analyses. May be integrative, but not simply a list of different approaches | Yes or no | 100a |
13b | If yes, identify the theory or framework. | Quote text directly from article | Text | – |
14a | Do the authors empirically demonstrate that explicit factors enable learning? | Factors that explicitly enable learning according to the study results. Not theoretical or conceptual factors but ones the author actually discusses in the findings or conclusion section. Examples may include some of the following, as well as other examples: Neutral facilitator, boundary object, internal leadership | Yes or no | 100a |
14b | If yes, identify the factors | May quote directly from the text | Text | – |
15 | What is the PRIMARY environmental issue? 1 = water; 2 = forests; 3 = species, including fish & biodiversity; 4 = agriculture or land or soil conservation; 5 = energy/climate; 6 = multiple resources; 7 = other or non-specific | This may be indicated in the research question or design. Can include context of case study or theoretical article. Apply typology. | Typology | 100a |
16a | Does the author explicitly state their hypotheses? | Authors must provide some proposed statement of expectation/explanation | Yes or no | 90.32 |
16b | If yes, give text for hypotheses. | Flag if the hypotheses are not clearly presented | Text | – |
17a | Is there a primary geographic scale at which the authors are working? | This may be indicated in the research question or research design. Includes both primarily theoretical as well as primarily empirical articles | Yes or no | 78.79 |
17b | If yes, describe geographic scale | May quote directly from the text. This may be indicated in the research question or research design. Includes both primarily theoretical as well as primarily empirical articles | Text | |
17c | Geographic Scale: 0 = N/A; 1 = other; 2 = local, community, village, neighborhood; 3 = national; 4 = state or region/watershed within a country; 5 = region/watershed across country boundaries and international | Categorize text according to typology | Typology | 100b |
18a | What is the geographic location or locations of observations? 0 = N/A; 1 = North America; 2 = South America; 3 = Africa; 4 = Europe; 5 = Asia; 6 = Australia; 7 = Antarctica; 8 = multiple geographic locations | This may be indicated in the research question or research design. Designate using typology Code review articles as “multiple” (8). Code South Pacific islands as “multiple” (8). If unknown, code as “N/A” (0) | Typology | 81.99 |
18b | Specify location | Indicate if the study focuses on a specific state, country, or region. Can quote directly from the text | Text | – |
19 | Is the research primarily empirical? | Does the article analyze data, cases, or evidence? | Yes or no | 88.99 |
20 | Is the intention of the paper to link learning to changed behavior? | Yes or no | 63.98 | |
21a | Are there specific types of learning the author refers to? | Yes or no | 92.47 | |
21b | If yes, what are the specific types of learning? | Quote text directly from article | Text | |
21c | Types of learning: 1 = social, 2 = policy/political, 3 = organizational/loop (single, double, triple), 4 = experiential/learning by doing/participatory action/action/simple action/problem-based learning, 5 = transformative/reflexive, 6 = collaborative/cooperative/collective/joint/mutual/group/shared, 7 = instrumental/scientific and technical, 8 = other, 0 = NA | Categorize text. (Similar types of learning are grouped together.) Note all types of learning mentioned by the authors, even if there are multiple types of learning in an article | Typology | 100b |
21c | Does the author identify multiple types of learning (multiple categories)? | Yes or no | – | |
22 | What are the primary bodies of literature the author says they are drawing from in the paper? | What literature is discussed and used to identify major concepts? | Text | – |
23a | Do the authors explicitly tease out specific phases or sub-processes of learning? | Are phases explicitly identified? | Yes or no | 68.33 |
23b | If yes, how are phases discussed? | Quote text directly from article, or identify key words | Text | – |
24 | Do the authors equate learning with changed outcomes? | Yes or no | 67.20 | |
25 | What is the primary unit of analysis at which the authors are trying to draw conclusions about learning? 1 = individual 2 = single organization 3 = multi-organizational/networks/subsystems 4 = society as a whole 5 = other; 0 = NA | This may be indicated in the research question or research design. | Typology | 61.56 |
26 | How many people or sub-units does the author draw data from in this paper? | Provide text to explain if sub-units are individuals, cases, or other. NA = 0 | Text | – |
27 | Is it the author’s intention to empirically measure and demonstrate a linkage between learning and changed behavior? | Yes or no | 56.67 | |
28 | Is it the author’s intention to empirically measure and demonstrate what leads to learning? | Yes or no | 67.20 | |
29 | Is secondary analysis conducted on existing literature (e.g., coding, meta-analyses)? | Yes or no | 82.80 | |
30 | Are data collected from oral interviews? | Yes or no | 90.32 | |
31 | Are data collected from written surveys? | Yes or no | 90.32 | |
32 | Are data collected from content analysis of documents? | Yes or no | 73.12 | |
33 | Are data collected from focus groups/workshops? | Yes or no | 86.02 | |
34 | Are descriptive statistics used for analysis? | Yes or no | 87.10 | |
35 | Are advanced statistical techniques used for analysis (for example, regression analysis and modeling multiple variables, something beyond descriptive stats)? High threshold. | Yes or no | 89.25 | |
36 | If qualitative methods are used, does the author describe them? | Yes or no | 82.80 | |
37 | Are network analyses used? | Yes or no | 100 | |
38 | List any other methods used (for example, game theory, participatory modeling, agent-based modeling, simulations or role playing games)? (NA, none = 0) | Text | – | |
39 | What is the overall take-away message from the article? | What are the conclusions from the article, drawn from the discussion and conclusion sections | Text | – |
40 | What are the strengths of the article? | Assessment and interpretation by coder | Text | – |
41 | What are the limitations of the article? | Assessment and interpretation by coder | Text | – |
42 | Any additional notes or impressions? | Assessment and interpretation by coder | Text | – |
Appendix 2: Summary statistics of coded items
Variable | Frequency (% of total articles) |
---|---|
Journal: Policy/politics | 25 (15.30) |
Journal: Management/planning | 44 (27.00) |
Journal: Resource-specific | 23 (14.10) |
Journal: Ecology/natural resources | 49 (30.10) |
Journal: Other | 22 (13.50) |
Research question or goal stated around learning | 122 (74.90) |
Learning central or a key concept | 159 (97.60) |
Development of theories, frameworks on learning is a goal | 41 (25.20) |
Intention to empirically test theory, framework | 30 (18.40) |
Learning is defined | 69 (42.30) |
Article conceptually or empirically identifies venue | 97 (59.5) |
Venue: Not identified | 66 (40.50) |
Venue: Workshop, forum, meeting, working group, focus group, seminar, training session | 43 (26.40) |
Venue: Boundary/bridging organization | 5 (3.10) |
Venue: Environmental/scientific/technical assessment process/peer reviews/ | 12 (7.40) |
Venue: Game/Experiment/Model | 8 (4.90) |
Venue: Network | 7 (4.30) |
Venue: Multi-stakeholder/co-management process/collaborative process/non-specific participatory process | 31 (19.00) |
Venue: Organizational body/bodies | 10 (6.10) |
Venue: Other | 15 (9.20) |
Pinpoint a theory, framework used | 72 (44.20) |
Empirically demonstrate factors that enable learning | 93 (57.10) |
Primary environmental issue: Water | 34 (20.90) |
Primary environmental issue: Forests | 4 (2.50) |
Primary environmental issue: Species | 15 (9.20) |
Primary environmental issue: Agriculture/land | 18 (11.00) |
Primary environmental issue: Energy/climate | 18 (11.00) |
Primary environmental issue: Multiple | 19 (11.70) |
Primary environmental issue: Other/non-specific | 55 (33.70) |
Explicitly state hypotheses | 29 (17.80) |
A primary geographic scale | 106 (65.00) |
Geographic scale: Not identified | 47 (28.80) |
Geographic scale: Other | 8 (4.90) |
Geographic scale: Local | 35 (21.50) |
Geographic scale: National | 14 (8.60) |
Geographic scale: State/Region within watershed | 46 (28.20) |
Geographic scale: Region/Watershed across boundaries/international | 13 (8.00) |
Geographic location: Not Identified | 36 (22.10) |
Geographic location: North America | 24 (14.70) |
Geographic location: South America | 5 (3.10) |
Geographic location: Africa | 7 (4.30) |
Geographic location: Europe | 45 (27.60) |
Geographic location: Asia | 12 (7.40) |
Geographic location: Australia | 15 (9.20) |
Geographic location: Multiple | 19 (11.70) |
Primarily empirical | 112 (68.70) |
Intention to link learning to changed behavior | 81 (49.70) |
Article identifies specific types of learning | 134 (82.20) |
Type of learning: Not identified | 31 (19.00) |
Type of learning: Social | 75 (46.00) |
Type of learning: Policy, Political | 20 (12.30) |
Type of learning: Organizational, Loop | 24 (14.70) |
Type of learning: Experiential, Learning by Doing, Action, Problem-Based | 28 (17.20) |
Type of learning: Transformative, Reflexive, Adaptive | 15 (9.20) |
Type of learning: Collaborative, Cooperative, Collective, Joint, Mutual, Group, Shared, Community | 23 (14.10) |
Type of learning: Instrumental, Scientific, Technical | 12 (7.40) |
Type of learning: Other | 41 (25.20) |
Article identifies multiple types of learning | 64 (39.30) |
Identify phases of learning | 34 (20.86) |
Equate learning with changed outcomes | 115 (70.60) |
Primary unit of analysis: Not identified | 3 (1.80) |
Primary unit of analysis: Individual | 14 (8.60) |
Primary unit of analysis: Single organization | 24 (14.70) |
Primary unit of analysis: Multiple organizations, networks, subsystems | 91 (55.80) |
Primary unit of analysis: Society | 24 (14.70) |
Primary unit of analysis: Other | 7 (4.30) |
Intention to empirically link learning to changed behavior | 48 (29.50) |
Intention to empirically demonstrate what leads to learning | 70 (42.90) |
Methods: Secondary analysis of literature | 31 (19.00) |
Methods: Oral interviews | 65 (39.90) |
Methods: Written surveys | 27 (16.60) |
Methods: Document analysis | 49 (30.10) |
Methods: Focus groups/Workshops | 38 (23.30) |
Methods: Descriptive statistics | 31 (19.00) |
Methods: Advanced statistics | 17 (10.40) |
Methods: Are methods described | 54 (33.10) |
Methods: Network analysis | 3 (1.80) |
Appendix 3: Articles included in the analysis
Albright, E.A. (2011). Policy change and learning in response to extreme flood events in Hungary: an advocacy coalition approach. Policy Studies Journal, 39(3), 485–511.
Allan, C., & Curtis, A. (2005). Nipped in the bud: Why regional scale adaptive management is not blooming. Environmental Management, 36(3), 414–425.
Allen, C.R., Fontaine, J.J., Pope, K.L., & Garmestani, A.S. (2011). Adaptive management for a turbulent future. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(5), 1339–1345.
Anderies, J.M., Rodriguez, A.A., Janssen, M.A., & Cifdaloz, O. (2007). Panaceas, uncertainty, and the robust control framework in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(39), 15194–15199.
Angelstam, P., Grodzynskyi, M., Andersson, K., Axelsson, R., Elbakidze, M., Khoroshev, A., Kruhlov, I., & Naumov, V. (2013). Measurement, collaborative learning and research for sustainable use of ecosystem services: Landscape concepts and Europe as Laboratory. Ambio, 42(2), 129–145.
Apostolopoulou, E., & Paloniemi, R. (2012). Frames of scale challenges in Finnish and Greek biodiversity conservation. Ecology and Society, 17(4), 9. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss4/art9/
Armitage, D., Marschke, M., & Plummer, R. (2008). Adaptive co-management and the paradox of learning. Global Environmental Change, 18(1), 86–98.
Armitage, D., Berkes, F., Dale, A., Kocho-Schellenberg, E., & Patton, E. (2011). Co-management and the co-production of knowledge: Learning to adapt in Canada’s Arctic. Global Environmental Change, 21(3), 995–1004.
Axelsson, R., Angelstam, P., Myhrman, L., Sadbom, S., Ivarsson, M., Elbakidze, M., Andersson, K., Cupa, P., Diry, C., Doyon, F., Drotz, M.K., Hjorth, A., Hermansson, J.O., Kullberg, T., Lickers, F.H., McTaggart, J., Olsson, A., Pautov, Y., Svensson, L., & Tornblom, J. (2013). Evaluation of multi-level social learning for sustainable landscapes: Perspective of a development initiative in Bergslagen, Sweden. Ambio, 42(2), 241–253.
Bardsley, D.K., & Rogers, G.P. (2010). Prioritizing engagement for sustainable adaptation to climate change: An example from natural resource management in South Australia. Society and Natural Resources, 24(1), 1–17.
Bardsley, D.K., & Sweeney, S.M. (2010). Guiding climate change adaptation within vulnerable natural resources management systems. Environmental Management, 45 (5), 1127–1141.
Bendt, P., Barthel, S., & Colding, J. (2013). Civic greening and environmental learning in public-access community gardens in Berlin. Landscape and Urban Planning, 109(1), 18–30.
Blackmore, C. (2005). Learning to appreciate learning systems for environmental decision making: A ‘work in progress’ perspective. System Research and Behavioral Science, 22(4), 329–341.
Bohnet, I., & Smith, D.M. (2007). Planning future landscapes in the Wet Tropics of Australia: A social-ecological framework. Landscape and Urban Planning, 80(1–2), 137–152.
Bomberg, E. (2006). Policy learning in an enlarged European Union: environmental NGOs and new policy instruments. Journal of European Public Policy, 14(2), 248–268.
Bond, A.J., Dockerty, T., Lovett, A., Riche, A.B., Haughton, A.J., Bohan, D.A, Sage, R.B., Shield, I.F., Finch, J.W., Turner, M.M., & Karp, A. (2011). Learning how to deal with values, frames and governance in sustainability appraisal. Regional Studies, 45(8), 1157–1170.
Bos, J.J., Brown, R.R., Farrelly, M.A., & de Haan, F.J. (2013). Enabling sustainable urban water management through governance experimentation. Water Science and Technology, 67(8), 1708–1717.
Bremer, S. (2013). Mobilising high-quality knowledge through dialogic environmental governance: A comparison of approaches and their institutional settings. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 16(1–2), 66–90.
Brock, W.A., & Carpenter, S.R. (2007). Panaceas and diversification of environmental policy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(39), 15206–15211.
Brugnach, M., Dewulf, A., Henriksen, H.J., & van der Keur, P. (2011). More is not always better: Coping with ambiguity in natural resources management. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(1), 78–84.
Brugnach, M., & Ingram, H. (2012). Ambiguity: the challenge of knowing and deciding together. Environmental Science and Policy, 15(1), 60–71.
Brummel, R.F., Nelson, K.C., Souter, S.G., Jakes, P.J., & Williams, D.R. (2010). Social learning in a policy-mandated collaboration: Community wildfire protection planning in the eastern United States. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 53(6), 681–699.
Cashmore, M., Bond, A., & Cobb, D. (2007). The contribution of environmental assessment to sustainable development: Toward a richer empirical understanding. Environmental Management, 40(3), 516–530.
Castella, J.C. (2009). Assessing the role of learning devices and geovisualisation tools for collective action in natural resource management: Experiences from Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(2), 1313–1319.
Clark J.R.A., & Clarke R. (2011). Local sustainability initiatives in English National Parks: What role for adaptive governance?. Land Use Policy, 28(1), 314–324.
Clark J.R.A., & Semmahasak C. (2013). Evaluating adaptive governance approaches to sustainable water management in north-west Thailand. Environmental Management, 51(4), 882–896.
Collins, K., & Ison, R. (2009). Jumping off Arnstein’s ladder: Social learning as a new policy paradigm for climate change adaptation. Environmental Policy and Governance, 19(6), 358–373.
Colvin, J., Ballim, F., Chimbuya, S. Everard, M., Goss, J., Klarenberg, G., Ndlovu, S., Ncala, D., & Weston, D. (2008). Building capacity for co-operative governance as a basis for integrated water resource managing in the Inkomati and Mvoti catchments, South Africa. Water SA, 34(6), 681–689.
Crona, B.I., & Parker, J.N. (2012). Learning in support of governance: Theories, methods, and a framework to assess how bridging organizations contribute to adaptive resource governance. Ecology and Society, 17(1), 32. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss1/art32/
Cundill, G., Cumming, G.S., Biggs, D., & Fabricius, C. (2012). Soft systems thinking and social learning for adaptive management. Conservation Biology, 26(1), 13–20.
Dana, G.V., & Nelson, K.C. (2012). Social learning through environmental risk analysis and biodiversity and GM maize in South Africa. Environmental Policy and Governance, 22(4), 238–252.
Daniels, S.E., & Walker, G.B. (2012). Lessons from the trenches: Twenty years of using systems thinking in natural resource conflict situations. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 29(2), 104–115.
Davidson-Hunt, I.J. (2006). Adaptive learning networks: Developing resource management knowledge through social learning forums. Human Ecology, 34(4), 593–614.
Davies, A.L., & White, R.M. (2012). Collaboration in natural resource governance: Reconciling stakeholder expectations in deer management in Scotland. Journal of Environmental Management, 112(December 2012), 160–169.
Dessie, Y., Wurzinger, M., & Hauser, M. (2012). The role of social learning for soil conservation: the case of Amba Zuria land management, Ethiopia. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 19(3), 258–267.
Dessie, Y., Schubert U., Wurzinger M., & Hauser M. (2013). The role of institutions and social learning in soil conservation innovations: Implications for policy and practice. Environmental Science and Policy, 27(March 2013), 21–31.
Dewulf, A., Craps, M., Bouwen, R., Taillieu, T., & Pahl-Wostl, C. (2005). Integrated management of natural resources: dealing with ambiguous issues, multiple actors, and diverging frames. Water Science and Technology, 52(6), 115–124.
Diduck, A., Sinclair, A.J., Hostetler, G., & Fitzpatrick, P. (2012). Transformative learning theory, public involvement, and natural resource and environmental management. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 55(10), 1311–1330.
Ducrot, R. (2009). Gaming across scale in peri-urban water management: contribution from two experiences in Bolivia and Brazil. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 16(4), 240–252.
Eakin, H., Eriksen, S., Eikeland, P.-O., & Oyen, C. (2011). Public sector reform and governance for adaptation: Implications of new public management for adaptive capacity in Mexico and Norway. Environmental Management, 47(3), 338–351.
Faysse, N., Errahj, M., Imache, A., Kemmoun, H., & Labbaci, T. (2014). Paving the way for social learning when governance is weak: Supporting dialogue between stakeholders to face a groundwater crisis in Morocco. Society and Natural Resources, 27(3), 249–264.
Feindt, P.H. (2010). Policy-learning and environmental policy integration in the common agricultural policy, 1973–2003. Public Administration, 88(2), 296–314.
Ferioli, F, Schoots, K., & van der Zwaan, B.C.C. (2009). Use and limitations of learning curves for energy technology policy: A component-learning hypothesis. Energy Policy, 37 (7), 2525–2535.
Fischer, C., & Newell, R.G. (2008). Environmental and technology policies for climate mitigation, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 55(2), 142–162.
Fish, R.D., Ioris, A.A.R., & Watson, N.M. (2010). Integrating water and agricultural management: Collaborative governance for a complex policy problem, Science of the Total Environment, 408(23), 5623–5630.
Galaz, V. (2005). Social-ecological resilience and social conflict: Institutions and strategic adaptation in Swedish water management. Ambio, 37(7), 567–572.
Garmendia, E., & Stagl, S. (2010). Public participation for sustainability and social learning: Concepts and lessons from three case studies in Europe. Ecological Economics, 69(8), 1712–1722.
Garmendia, E., Gamboa, G., Franco, J., Garmendia, J.M., Liria, P., & Olazabal, M. (2012). Social multi-criteria evaluation as a decision support tool for integrated coastal zone management. Ocean and Coastal Management, 53(7), 385–403.
Genskow, K.D., & Wood, D.M. (2011). Improving voluntary environmental management programs: Facilitating learning and adaptation. Environmental Management, 47(5), 907–916.
Gouldson, A., Hills, P., & Welford, R. (2008). Ecological modernisation and policy learning in Hong Kong. Geoforum, 39(1), 319–330.
Grainger, A. (2012). Forest sustainability indicator systems as procedural policy tools in global environmental governance. Global Environmental Change, 22(1), 147–160.
Hall, C.M. (2011). Policy learning and policy failure in sustainable tourism governance: from first- and second-order to third-order change?. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(4–5), 649–671.
Haug, C., Huitema, D., & Wenzler, I. (2011). Learning through games? Evaluating the learning effect of a policy exercise on European climate policy. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 78(6), 968–981.
Hayward, G., Diduck, A., & Mitchell, B. (2007). Social learning outcomes in the red river floodway environmental assessment. Environmental Practice, 9(4), 239–250.
Heikkila, T., & Gerlak, A.K. (2013). Building a conceptual approach to collective learning: lessons for public policy scholars. Policy Studies Journal, 41(3), 484–512.
Hezri, A.A. (2004). Sustainability indicator system and policy processes in Malaysia: A framework for utilisation and learning. Journal of Environmental Management, 73(4), 357–371.
Hezri, A.A., & Dovers, S.R. (2006). Sustainability indicators, policy and governance: Issues for ecological economics. Ecological Economics, 60(1), 86–99.
Hong, F., & Wang, S. (2012). Climate Policy, Learning, and Technology Adoption in Small Countries. Environmental and Resource Economics, 51(3), 391–411.
Howlett, M., & Joshi-Koop, S. (2011). Transnational learning, policy analytical capacity, and environmental policy convergence: Survey results from Canada. Global Environmental Change, 21(1), 85–92.
Hughes, T.P., Gunderson, L.H., Folke, C., Baird, A.H., Bellwood, D., Berkes, F., Crona, B., Helfgott, A., Leslie, H., Norberg, J., Nystrom, M., Olsson, P., Osterblom, H., Scheffer, M., Schuttenberg, H., Steneck, R.S., Tengo, M., Troell, M, Walker, B., Wilson, J., & Worm, B. (2007). Adaptive management of the Great Barrier Reef and the Grand Canyon world heritage areas. Ambio, 36(7), 586–592.
Huntjens, P., Pahl-Wostl, C., Rihoux, B, Schulter, M., Flachner, Z., Neto, S., Koskova, R., Dickens, C., & Kiti, I.N. (2011). Adaptive water management and policy learning in a changing climate: a formal comparative analysis of eight water management regimes in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Environmental Policy and Governance, 21(3), 145–163.
Ison, R., Blackmore, C., Collins, K, & Furniss, P. (2007). Systematic environmental decision making: designing learning systems. Kybernetes, 36(9–10), 1340–1361.
Ison, R., Roling, N., & Watson, D. (2007). Challenges to science and society in the sustainable management and use of water: investigating the role of social learning. Environmental Science and Policy, 10(6), 499–511.
Ison R., Blackmore C., & Iaquinto B.L. (2013). Towards systemic and adaptive governance: Exploring the revealing and concealing aspects of contemporary social-learning metaphors. Ecological Economics, 87(March, 2013), 34–42.
Jha-Thakur, U., Gazzola, P., Peel, D., Fischer, T.B., & Kidd, S. (2009). Effectiveness of strategic environmental assessment - the significance of learning. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 27(2), 133–144.
Karp, L. (2012). The effect of learning on membership and welfare in an international environmental agreement. Climatic Change, 110(3–4), 499–505.
Kashyap, A. (2004). Water governance: Learning by developing adaptive capacity to incorporate climate variability and change. Water Science and Technology, 49(7), 141–146.
Kauffman, C.M., & Martin, P.L. (2014). Scaling up Buen Vivir: Globalizing local environmental governance from Ecuador. Global Environmental Politics, 14(1), 40–58.
Keen, M., & Mahanty, S. (2006). Learning in sustainable natural resource management: Challenges and opportunities in the Pacific. Society and Natural Resources, 19(6), 497–513.
Keith, D.A., Martin, T.G., McDonald-Madden, E., &Walters, C. (2011). Uncertainty and adaptive management for biodiversity conservation. Biological Conservation, 144 (4), 1175–1178.
Kiss, B., & Neij, L. (2011). The importance of learning when supporting emergent technologies for energy efficiency-A case study on policy intervention for learning for the development of energy efficient windows in Sweden. Energy Policy, 39(10), 6514–6524.
Kokkinakis, A.K., & Andreopoulou, Z.S. (2009). Teaching and learning sustainability in fisheries in lake ecosystems using ICT-based systems. International Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, 10(2), 500–509.
Kolstad, C.D., & Ulph, A. (2011). Uncertainty, Learning and Heterogeneity in International Environmental Agreements. Environmental and Resource Economics, 50(3), 389–403.
Kooiman, J., & Jentoft, S. (2009). Meta-governance: Values, norms and principles, and the making of hard choices. Public Administration, 87(4), 818–836.
Krasny, M.E., Lundholm, C., & Plummer, R. (2010). Environmental education, resilience, and learning: reflection and moving forward. Environmental Education Research, 16(5–6), 665–672.
Kroger L. (2005). Development of the Finnish agri-environmental policy as a learning process. European Environment, 15(1), 13–26.
Lankester, A.J. (2013). Conceptual and operational understanding of learning for sustainability: A case study of the beef industry in north-eastern Australia. Journal of Environmental Management, 119, 182–193.
Larsen, S.C., Foulkes, M., Sorenson, C.J., & Thompson, A. (2011). Environmental learning and the social construction of an exurban landscape in Fremont County, Colorado. Geoforum, 42(1), 83–93.
Lee, T., & van de Meene, S. (2012). Who teaches and who learns? Policy learning through the C40 cities climate network. Policy Sciences, 45(3), 199–220.
Lehtonen, M. (2007). Environmental policy integration through OECD peer reviews: Integrating the economy with the environment or the environment with the economy? Environmental Politics, 16(1), 15–35.
Levrel, H., & Bouamrane, M. (2008). Instrumental learning and sustainability indicators: Outputs from co-construction experiments in West African biosphere reserves. Ecology and Society, 13(1), 28. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art28/
Lin, H. (2012). Strategic Alliances for Environmental Improvements. Business and Society, 51(2), 335–348.
Lockwood, M., Davidson, J., Curtis, A., Stratford, E., & Griffith, R. (2009). Multi-level Environmental Governance: Lessons from Australian natural resource management. Australian Geographer, 40(2), 169–186.
Lockwood, M., Davidson, J., Hockings, M., Haward, M., & Kriwoken, L. (2012). Marine biodiversity conservation governance and management: Regime requirements for global environmental change. Ocean and Coastal Management, 69, 160–172.
Lof, A. (2010). Exploring adaptability through learning layers and learning loops. Environmental Education Research, 16 (5–6), 529–543.
Luks, F., & Siebenhuner, B. (2007). Transdisciplinarity for social learning? The contribution of the German socio-ecological research initiative to sustainability governance. Ecological Economics, 63 (2–3), 418–426.
Lundberg, K. (2011). A systems thinking approach to environmental follow-up in a Swedish central public authority: Hindrances and possibilities for learning from experience. Environmental Management, 48 (1), 123–133.
Lundholm, C., & Plummer, R. (2010). Resilience and learning: a conspectus for environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 16 (5–6) 475–491.
Lynam, T., de Jong, W., Sheil, D., Kusumanto, T., & Evans, K. (2007). A review of tools for incorporating community knowledge, preferences, and values into decision making in natural resources management. Ecology and Society, 12 (1), 5. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss1/art5/
Mahanty, S., Stacey, N., Holland, P., Wright, A., & Menzies, S. (2007). Learning to learn: Designing monitoring plans in the Pacific Islands International Waters Project. Ocean and Coastal Management, 50 (5–6), 392–410.
Manring, S.L. (2007). Creating and managing interorganizational learning networks to achieve sustainable ecosystem management. Organization and Environment, 20 (3), 325–346.
Marschke, M., & Sinclair, A.J. (2009). Learning for sustainability: Participatory resource management in Cambodian fishing villages. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(1), 206–216.
Maurel, P., Craps, M., Cernesson, F, Raymond, R., Valkering, P., & Ferrand, N. (2007). Concepts and methods for analysing the role of information and communication (IC-tools) in social learning processes for river basin management. Environmental Modelling and Software, 22 (5), 630–639.
McDaniels, T.L., & Gregory, R. (2004). Learning as an objective within a structured risk management decision process. Environmental Science and Technology, 38 (7), 1921–1926.
Measham, T.G. (2006). Learning about environments: The significance of primal landscapes. Environmental Management, 38 (3), 426–434.
Measham, T.G. (2009). Social learning through evaluation: A case study of overcoming constraints for management of dryland salinity. Environmental Management, 43 (6), 1096–1107.
Michaels, S., Goucher, N.P., & McCarthy, D. (2006). Policy windows, policy change, and organizational learning: Watersheds in the evolution of watershed management. Environmental Management, 39 (6), 983–992.
Michel, D. (2009). Foxes, hedgehogs, and greenhouse governance: Knowledge, uncertainty, and international policy-making in a warming world. Applied Energy, 86 (2), 258–264.
Mills, J., Gibbon, D., Ingram, J., Reed, M., Short, C., & Dwyer, J. (2011). Organising collective action for effective environmental management and social learning in Wales. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 17 (1), 69–83.
Miranda, M., Dieperink, C., & Glasbergen, P. (2006). Costa Rican environmental service payment: The use of a financial instrumention participatory forest management. Environmental Management, 38(4), 562–571.
Mistry, J., Berardi, A., Roopsind, I., Davis, O., Haynes, L., Davis, O., & Simpson, M. (2011). Capacity building for adaptive management: A problem-based learning approach. Development in Practice, 21 (2), 190–204.
Muller, M., & Siebenhuner, B. (2007). Policy instruments for sustainability-oriented organizational learning. Business Strategy and the Environment, 16 (3), 232–245.
Munaretto S., & Huitema D. (2012). Adaptive comanagement in the Venice lagoon? An analysis of current water and environmental management practices and prospects for change. Ecology and Society, 17 (2), 19. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss2/art19/.
Muro, M., & Jeffrey, P. (2012). Time to talk? How the structure of dialog processes shapes stakeholder learning in participatory water resources management. Ecology and Society, 17 (1), 3. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol17/iss1/art3/Accessed 25 April 2016.
Newig, J., Gunther D., & Pahl-Wostl, C. (2010). Synapses in the network: Learning in governance networks in the context of environmental management. Ecology and Society, 15(4), 24. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art24/Accessed 25 April 2016.
Nguyen, T.T.H., & Ford, A. (2010). Learning from neighbors: economic and environmental impacts from intensive shrimp farming in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Sustainability, 2(7), 2144–2162.
Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, O.J.H., & Maani, K.E. (2011). Creating “learning laboratories” for sustainable development in biospheres: a systems thinking approach. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 28(1), 51–62.
Nilsson, M. (2005). The role of assessments and institutions for policy learning: A study on Swedish climate and nuclear policy formation. Policy Sciences, 38(4), 225–249.
Norgaard, R.B., Kallis, G., & Kiparsky, M. (2009). Collectively engaging complex socio-ecological systems: re-envisioning science, governance, and the California Delta. Environmental Science and Policy, 12(6), 644–652.
Nykvist, B. (2014). Does Social Learning Lead to Better Natural Resource Management? A Case Study of the Modern Farming Community of Practice in Sweden. Society and Natural Resources, 27, 436–450.
Pahl-Wostl, C., & Hare, M. (2004). Processes of social learning in integrated resources management. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 14(3), 193–206.
Pahl-Wostl, C., Craps, M., Dewulf, A., Mostert, E., Tabara, D., & Taillieu, T. (2007). Social learning and water resources management. Ecology and Society, 12(2), 5. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art5/
Pahl-Wostl, C., Tabara, D., Bouwen, R., Craps, M., Dewulf, A., Mostert, E., Ridder, D., & Taillieu T. (2008). The importance of social learning and culture for sustainable water management. Ecological Economics, 64 (3), 484–495.
Pahl-Wostl, C., Jeffrey, P., Isendahl, N., & Brugnach, M. (2011). Maturing the new water management paradigm: processing from aspiration to practice. Water Resources Management, 25, 837–856.
Petheram, L., High, C., Campbell, B.M., & Stacey, N. (2011). Lenses for learning: Visual techniques in natural resource management. Journal of Environmental Management, 92(10), 2734–2745.
Pettersson, F., & Soderholm, P. (2009). The diffusion of renewable electricity in the presence of climate policy and technology learning. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, 13(8), 2031–2040.
Plant, R., & Ryan, P. (2013). Ecosystem services as a practicable concept for natural resource management: Some lessons from Australia. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystems Services and Management, 9 (1), 44–53.
Plummer, R., Armitage, D.R., & de Loe, R.C. (2013). Adaptive comanagement and its relationship to environmental governance. Ecology and Society, 18 (1), 21. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol18/iss1/art21/.
Querol, M.A.P., Suutari, T., & Seppanen, L. (2010). Learning as the construction and remediation of activity Systems: Environmental management in biogas production. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension: Competence for Rural Innovation and Transformation, 16 (4), 373–384.
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Raymond, C.M., & Cleary, J. (2013). A tool and process that facilitate community capacity building and social learning for natural resource management. Ecology and Society, 18 (1): 25. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol18/iss1/art25/.
Rist, S., Chidambaranathan, M., Escobar, C., Wiesmann, U., & Zimmermann, A. (2007). Moving from sustainable management to sustainable governance of natural resources: The role of social learning processes in rural India, Bolivia and Mali. Journal of Rural Studies, 23 (1), 23–37.
Rivers, N., & Jaccard, M. (2006). Choice of environmental policy in the presence of learning by doing. Energy Economics, 28 (2), 223–242.
Robards, M.D., & Lovecraft, A.L. (2010). Evaluating Comanagement for Social-Ecological fit: Indigenous priorities and agency mandates for Pacific Walrus. Policy Studies Journal, 38 (2), 257–279.
Rodela, R., Cundill, G.,& Wals, A.E.J. (2012). An analysis of the methodological underpinnings of social learning research in natural resource management. Ecological Economics, 77, 16–26.
Rodriguez, S.D.A., & Vergara-Tenorio, M.d.C. (2007). Reflections on the social learning process for community work in rural areas of Mexico. International Journal of Biodiversity Science and Management, 3 (1), 31–45.
Romijn, H., Raven, R.,& de Visser, I. (2010). Biomass energy experiments in rural India: Insights from learning-based development approaches and lessons for Strategic Niche Management. Environmental Science and Policy, 13 (4), 326–338.
Roome, N., & Wijen, F. (2006). Stakeholder power and organizational learning in corporate environmental management. Organization Studies, 27 (2), 235–263.
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Gerlak, A.K., Heikkila, T., Smolinski, S.L. et al. Learning our way out of environmental policy problems: a review of the scholarship. Policy Sci 51, 335–371 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-017-9278-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-017-9278-0