Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Regression in Autistic Spectrum Disorders

  • Published:
Neuropsychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A significant proportion of children diagnosed with Autistic Spectrum Disorder experience a developmental regression characterized by a loss of previously-acquired skills. This may involve a loss of speech or social responsitivity, but often entails both. This paper critically reviews the phenomena of regression in autistic spectrum disorders, highlighting the characteristics of regression, age of onset, temporal course, and long-term outcome. Important considerations for diagnosis are discussed and multiple etiological factors currently hypothesized to underlie the phenomenon are reviewed. It is argued that regressive autistic spectrum disorders can be conceptualized on a spectrum with other regressive disorders that may share common pathophysiological features. The implications of this viewpoint are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • APA (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Edition-Text Revision). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baird, G., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Meldrum, D., et al. (2008). Regression, Developmental Trajectory and Associated Problems in Disorders in the Autism Spectrum: The SNAP Study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.

  • Baird, G., Pickles, A., Simonoff, E., Charman, T., Sullivan, P., Chandler, S., et al. (2008). Measles vaccination and antibody response in autism spectrum disorders. Archives of Disease in Childhood.

  • Ballaban-Gil, K., Rapin, I., Tuchman, R., & Shinnar, S. (1996). Longitudinal examination of the behavioral, language, and social changes in a population of adolescents and young adults with autistic disorder. Pediatric Neurology, 15(3), 217–223.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, M. L., & Kemper, T. L. (2003). The neuropathology of the autism spectrum disorders: what have we learned? Novartis Foundation Symposium, 251, 112–122 discussion 122–118, 281–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernabei, P., Cerquiglini, A., Cortesi, F., & D’Ardia, C. (2007). Regression versus no regression in the autistic disorder: developmental trajectories. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(3), 580–588.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton, P., & Griffiths, P. (1997). Association of tuberous sclerosis of temporal lobes with autism and atypical autism. Lancet, 349(9049), 392–395.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J., & Prelock, P. A. (1995). Brief report: the impact of regression on language development in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(3), 305–309.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarti, S., & Fombonne, E. (2001). Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children. JAMA, 285(24), 3093–3099.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Christopher, J. A., Sears, L. L., Williams, P. G., Oliver, J., & Hersh, J. (2004). Familial, medical and developmental patterns of children with autism and a history ofl language regression. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 16(2), 163–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, D. F., Roberts, W., Daraksan, M., Dupuis, A., McCabe, J., Wood, H., et al. (2005). The prevalence of autistic spectrum disorder in children surveyed in a tertiary care epilepsy clinic. Epilepsia, 46(12), 1970–1977.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. M., Chez, M. G., Pestronk, A., Arnold, S. T., Mehta, S., & Deuel, R. K. (1999). Serum autoantibodies to brain in Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and other neurologic disorders. Journal of Pediatrics, 134(5), 607–613.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. M., Chez, M., Streif, B., Keeling, R., Tempb, R. J., Kwon, J., et al. (2001). Antiendothelial autoantibodies: Characterization of antigenic targets of sera from children with Landau-Kleffner syndrome, Landau-Kleffner variant, autism, and epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 50(3), S123–S123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. M., Chez, M., Streif, E. M., Keeling, R. M., Golumbek, P. T., Kwon, J. M., et al. (2006). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and autoantibodies to neural antigens in sera of children with autistic spectrum disorders, Landau-Kleffner syndrome, and epilepsy. Biological Psychiatry, 59(4), 354–363.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. M., Streif, E. M., & Chez, M. G. (2003). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and antibodies to brain-derived neurotrophic factor are elevated in children with autism, autism with regression, and epilepsy. Annals of Neurology, 54, S146–S147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C. M., Redcay, E., Buckwalter, J. A., Kennedy, D. P., et al. (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron, 56(2), 399–413.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Creak, E. M. (1961). Schizophrenic syndrome in childhood: progress report of a working party. Cerebral Palsy Bulletin, 3, 501–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dales, L., Hammer, S. J., & Smith, N. J. (2001). Time trends in autism and in MMR immunization coverage in California. Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(9), 1183–1185.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidovitch, M., Glick, L., Holtzman, G., Tirosh, E., & Safir, M. P. (2000). Developmental regression in autism: maternal perception. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(2), 113–119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidovitch, M., Holtzman, G., & Tirosh, E. (2001). Autism in the Haifa area–an epidemiological perspective. The Israel Medical Association Journal, 3(3), 188–189.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G. (2008). Early behavioral intervention, brain plasticity, and the prevention of autism spectrum disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 775–803.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, G., Munson, J., Webb, S. J., Nalty, T., Abbott, R., & Toth, K. (2007). Rate of head growth decelerates and symptoms worsen in the second year of life in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 61(4), 458–464.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Giacom, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7, 131–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLong, G. R., Bean, S. C., & Brown III., F. R. (1981). Acquired reversible autistic syndrome in acute encephalopathic illness in children. Archives of Neurology, 38(3), 191–194.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeMyer, M. K. (1979). Parents and Children in Autism. Washington, DC: Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deonna, T., Roulet-Perez, E., Chappuis, H., & Ziegler, A. L. (2007). Autistic regression associated with seizure onset in an infant with tuberous sclerosis. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49(4), 320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deonna, T., Ziegler, A.-L., Maeder, M.-I., Ansermet, F., & Roulet, E. (1995). Reversible behavioural autistic-like regression: A manifestation of a special (new?) epileptic syndrome in a 28-month-old child: A 2-year longitudinal study. Neurocase, 1(2), 91–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deonna, T., Ziegler, A. L., Moura-Serra, J., & Innocenti, G. (1993). Autistic regression in relation to limbic pathology and epilepsy: report of two cases. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 35(2), 166–176.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeStefano, F., Bhasin, T. K., Thompson, W. W., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., & Boyle, C. (2004). Age at first measles-mumps-rubella vaccination in children with autism and school-matched control subjects: a population-based study in metropolitan atlanta. Pediatrics, 113(2), 259–266.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, L. (1956). The autistic child in adolescence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 112, 607–612.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, C. P., Miller, E., & Taylor, B. (2001). MMR and autism: further evidence against a causal association. Vaccine, 19(27), 3632–3635.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E., & Chakrabarti, S. (2001). No evidence for a new variant of measles-mumps-rubella-induced autism. Pediatrics, 108(4), E58.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frith, U., & Happe, F. (2005). Autism spectrum disorder. Current Biology, 15(19), R786–790.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabis, L., Pomeroy, J., & Andriola, M. R. (2005). Autism and epilepsy: cause, consequence, comorbidity, or coincidence? Epilepsy and Behavior, 7(4), 652–656.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C. (1986). Onset at age 14 of a typical autistic syndrome. A case report of a girl with herpes simplex encephalitis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 16(3), 369–375.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg, C., & Steffenburg, S. (1987). Outcome and prognostic factors in infantile autism and similar conditions: A population-based study of 46 cases followed through puberty. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17(2), 273–287.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, W. A., Osann, K., Filipek, P. A., Laulhere, T., Jarvis, K., Modahl, C., et al. (2003). Language and other regression: assessment and timing. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(6), 607–616.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg, W. A., Thorsen, K. L., Osann, K., & Spence, M. A. (2008). Use of home videotapes to confirm parental reports of regression in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(6), 1136–1146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, R. L., Ozonoff, S., Krakowiak, P., Angkustsiri, K., Jones, C., Deprey, L. J., et al. (2008). Regression in autism: prevalence and associated factors in the CHARGE Study. Ambul Pediatr, 8(1), 25–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J., & Williams, S. (1975). Age and type of onset as critical variables in early infantile autism. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 5(1), 25–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoon Jr., A. H., & Reiss, A. L. (1992). The mesial-temporal lobe and autism: case report and review. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 34(3), 252–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoshino, Y., Kaneko, M., Yashima, Y., Kumashiro, H., Volkmar, F. R., & Cohen, D. J. (1987). Clinical features of autistic children with setback course in their infancy. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology, 41(2), 237–245.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jayakar, P. B., & Seshia, S. S. (1991). Electrical status epilepticus during slow-wave sleep: a review. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 8(3), 299–311.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jyonouchi, H., Sun, S., & Le, H. (2001). Proinflammatory and regulatory cytokine production associated with innate and adaptive immune responses in children with autism spectrum disorders and developmental regression. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 120(1–2), 170–179.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jyonouchi, H., Sun, S. N., Le, H. T., & Itokazu, N. (2002). Cytokine production against common dietary proteins in patients with autism spectrum disorder and developmental regression in comparison with patients with dietary protein intolerance. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 109(1), S221–S221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanner, A. (1944). Early infantile autism. Journal of Pediatrics, 25, 211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobayashi, R., & Murata, T. (1998). Setback phenomena in autism and long-term prognosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 98, 296–303.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurita, H. (1985). Infantile autism with speech loss before the age of thirty months. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24(2), 191–196.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurita, H. (1996). Specificity and developmental consequences of speech loss in children with pervasive developmental disorders. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 50(4), 181–184.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurita, H., Koyama, T., Setoya, Y., Shimizu, K., & Osada, H. (2004). Validity of childhood disintegrative disorder apart from autistic disorder with speech loss. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 13(4), 221–226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lainhart, J. E., Ozonoff, S., Coon, H., Krasny, L., Dinh, E., Nice, J., et al. (2002). Autism, regression, and the broader autism phenotype. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 113(3), 231–237.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2006). Development in infants with autism spectrum disorders: a prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 629–638.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landa, R. J., Holman, K. C., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2007). Social and communication development in toddlers with early and later diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(7), 853–864.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewine, J. D., Andrews, R., Chez, M., Patil, A. A., Devinsky, O., Smith, M., et al. (1999). Magnetoencephalographic patterns of epileptiform activity in children with regressive autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 104(3 Pt 1), 405–418.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C. (1995). Follow-up of two-year-olds referred for possible autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 36(8), 1365–1382.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lord, C., Shulman, C., & DiLavore, P. (2004). Regression and word loss in autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 45(5), 936–955.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotter, V. (1966). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. Psychiatry, 1, 124–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luyster, R., Richler, J., Risi, S., Hsu, W. L., Dawson, G., Bernier, R., et al. (2005). Early regression in social communication in autism spectrum disorders: A CPEA study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 27(3), 311–336.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen, K. M., Hviid, A., Vestergaard, M., Schendel, D., Wohlfahrt, J., Thorsen, P., et al. (2002). A population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 347(19), 1477–1482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maestro, S., Muratori, F., Cesari, A., Cavallaro, M. C., Paziente, A., Pecini, C., et al. (2005). Course of autism signs in the first year of life. Psychopathology, 38(1), 26–31.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maestro, S., Muratori, F., Cesari, A., Pecini, C., Apicella, F., & Stern, D. (2006). A view to regressive autism through home movies. Is early development really normal? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 113(1), 68–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mars, A. E., Mauk, J. E., & Dowrick, P. W. (1998). Symptoms of pervasive developmental disorders as observed in prediagnostic home videos of infants and toddlers. Journal of Pediatrics, 132(3), 500–504.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McVicar, K. A., Ballaban-Gil, K., Rapin, I., Moshe, S. L., & Shinnar, S. (2005). Epileptiform EEG abnormalities in children with language regression. Neurology, 65(1), 129–131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew, N. J., & Williams, D. L. (2007). The new neurobiology of autism: cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization. Archives of Neurology, 64(7), 945–950.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy, C. A., Keddache, M., & Martin, L. J. (2005). Evidence for linkage on 21q and 7q in a subset of autism characterized by developmental regression. Molecular Psychiatry, 10(8), 741–746.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Molloy, C. A., Morrow, A. L., Meinzen-Derr, J., Dawson, G., Bernier, R., Dunn, M., et al. (2006). Familial autoimmune thyroid disease as a risk factor for regression in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: a CPEA Study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 317–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mundy, P. (2003). Annotation: The neural basis of social impairments in autism: the role of the dorsal medial-frontal cortex and anterior cingulate system. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 44(6), 793–809.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nass, R., & Devinsky, O. (1999). Autistic regression with rolandic spikes. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 12(3), 193–197.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nass, R., Gross, A., & Devinsky, O. (1998). Autism and autistic epileptiform regression with occipital spikes. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 40(7), 453–458.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nass, R., Gross, A., Wisoff, J., & Devinsky, O. (1999). Outcome of multiple subpial transections for autistic epileptiform regression. Pediatric Neurology, 21(1), 464–470.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nass, R., & Petrucha, D. (1990). Acquired aphasia with convulsive disorder: a pervasive developmental disorder variant. Journal of Child Neurology, 5, 327–328.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neville, B. G., Harkness, W. F., Cross, J. H., Cass, H. C., Burch, V. C., Lees, J. A., et al. (1997). Surgical treatment of severe autistic regression in childhood epilepsy. Pediatric Neurology, 16(2), 137–140.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevsimalova, S., Tauberova, A., Doutlik, S., Kucera, V., & Dlouha, O. (1992). A role of autoimmunity in the etiopathogenesis of Landau Kleffner syndrome? Brain Development, 14, 342–345.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nickels, K., & Wirrell, E. (2008). Electrical status epilepticus in sleep. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 15(2), 50–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osterling, J., & Dawson, G. (1994). Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(3), 247–257.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Williams, B. J., & Landa, R. (2005). Parental report of the early development of children with regressive autism: the delays-plus-regression phenotype. Autism, 9(5), 461–486.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parr, J. R., Lamb, J. A., Bailey, A. J., & Monaco, A. P. (2006). Response to paper by Molloy et al.: linkage on 21q and 7q in autism subset with regression. Molecular Psychiatry, 11(7), 617–619 author reply 619.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavone, P., Incorpora, G., Fiumara, A., Parano, E., Trifiletti, R. R., & Ruggieri, M. (2004). Epilepsy is not a prominent feature of primary autism. Neuropediatrics, 35(4), 207–210.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plioplys, A. V. (1994). Autism - Electroencephalogram Abnormalities and Clinical Improvement with Valproic Acid. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 148(2), 220–222.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richler, J., Luyster, R., Risi, S., Hsu, W. L., Dawson, G., Bernier, R., et al. (2006). Is there a ‘regressive phenotype’ of Autism Spectrum Disorder associated with the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine? A CPEA Study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(3), 299–316.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J. (2004). Developmental regression in autism spectrum disorders. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Review, 10(2), 139–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, S. J., & DiLalla, D. L. (1990). Age of symptom onset in young children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(6), 863–872.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roulet, E., Deonna, T., Gaillard, F., Peter-Favre, C., & Despland, P. A. (1991). Acquired aphasia, dementia, and behavior disorder with epilepsy and continuous spike and waves during sleep in a child. Epilepsia, 32(4), 495–503.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1984). Cognitive deficits in the pathogenesis of autism. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry & Child Development.

  • Rutter, M. (2005). Aetiology of autism: findings and questions. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49(Pt 4), 231–238.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., & Lockyer, L. (1967). A five to fifteen year follow-up study of infantile psychosis. I. Description of the sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 1169–1182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shinnar, S., Rapin, I., Arnold, S., Tuchman, R. F., Shulman, L., Ballaban-Gil, K., et al. (2001). Language regression in childhood. Pediatric Neurology, 24(3), 183–189.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Short, A. B., & Schopler, E. (1988). Factors relating to age of onset in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18(2), 207–216.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singer, H. S., Morris, C. M., Gause, C. D., Gillin, P. K., Crawford, S., & Zimmerman, A. W. (2008). Antibodies against fetal brain in sera of mothers with autistic children. Journal of Neuroimmunology, 194(1–2), 165–172.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, V. K., & Rivas, W. H. (2004). Prevalence of serum antibodies to caudate nucleus in autistic children. Neuroscience Letters, 355(1–2), 53–56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, V. K., Warren, R., Averett, R., & Ghaziuddin, M. (1997). Circulating autoantibodies to neuronal and glial filament proteins in autism. Pediatric Neurology, 17(1), 88–90.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stefanatos, G. A., Grover, W., & Geller, E. (1995). Case-Study - Corticosteroid Treatment of Language Regression in Pervasive Developmental Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(8), 1107–1111.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stefanatos, G. A., & Joe, W. Q. (2008). Autistic disorder. In J. E. Morgan, & J. Ricker (Eds.), Textbook of Clincal Neuropsychology (pp. 185–260). New York: Taylor and Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefanatos, G. A., Kinsbourne, M., & Wasserstein, J. (2002). Acquired epileptiform aphasia: a dimensional view of Landau-Kleffner syndrome and the relation to regressive autistic spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 8(3), 195–228.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffenburg, S., Gillberg, C., & Steffenburg, U. (1996). Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with mental retardation and active epilepsy. Archives of Neurology, 53(9), 904–912.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, W. L., Lee, E. B., Ashford, L., Brissie, J., Hepburn, S. L., Coonrod, E. E., et al. (1999). Can autism be diagnosed accurately in children under 3 years? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40(2), 219–226.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, H., Suzumura, S., Shirakizawa, F., Wada, N., Tanaka-Taya, K., Arai, S., et al. (2003). An epidemiological study on Japanese autism concerning routine childhood immunization history. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 56(3), 114–117.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tassinari, C. A., Rubboli, G., Volpi, L., Meletti, S., d’Orsi, G., Franca, M., et al. (2000). Encephalopathy with electrical status epilepticus during slow sleep or ESES syndrome including the acquired aphasia. Clinical Neurophysiology, 11(Suppl 2), S94–S102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, B., Miller, E., Lingam, R., Andrews, N., Simmons, A., & Stowe, J. (2002). Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and bowel problems or developmental regression in children with autism: population study. British Medical Journal, 324(7334), 393–396.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuchman, R. (2006). Autism and epilepsy: what has regression got to do with it? Epilepsy Currents, 6(4), 107–111.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuchman, R. F., & Rapin, I. (1997). Regression in pervasive developmental disorders: seizures and epileptiform electroencephalogram correlates. Pediatrics, 99(4), 560–566.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uldall, P., Sahlholdt, L., & Alving, J. (2000). Landau-Kleffner syndrome with onset at 18 months and an initial diagnosis of pervasive developmental disorder. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 4(2), 81–86.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Hirtum-Das, M., Licht, E. A., Koh, S., Wu, J. Y., Shields, W. D., & Sankar, R. (2006). Children with ESES: variability in the syndrome. Epilepsy Research, 70(Suppl 1), S248–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkmar, F. R., Stier, D. M., & Cohen, D. J. (1985). Age of recognition of pervasive developmental disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(12), 1450–1452.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield, A. J. (2003). Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(10), 951–954 author reply 951–954.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakefield, A. J., Murch, S. H., Anthony, A., Linnell, J., Casson, D. M., Malik, M., et al. (1998). Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. Lancet, 351(9103), 637–641.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walz, N. C., Byars, A. W., Egelhoff, J. C., & Franz, D. N. (2002). Supratentorial tuber location and autism in tuberous sclerosis complex. Journal of Child Neurology, 17(11), 830–832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. P., Singh, V. K., Averett, R. E., Odell, J. D., Maciulis, A., Burger, R. A., et al. (1996). Immunogenetic studies in autism and related disorders. Molecular and Chemical Neuropathology, 28(1–3), 77–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, S. J., Nalty, T., Munson, J., Brock, C., Abbott, R., & Dawson, G. (2007). Rate of head circumference growth as a function of autism diagnosis and history of autistic regression. Journal of Child Neurology, 22(10), 1182–1190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weizman, A., Weizman, R., Szekely, G. A., Wijsenbeek, H., & Livni, E. (1982). Abnormal immune response to brain tissue antigen in the syndrome of autism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139(11), 1462–1465.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E., & Dawson, G. (2005). Validation of the phenomenon of autistic regression using home videotapes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(8), 889–895.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E., Dawson, G., Munson, J., & Osterling, J. (2005). Variation in early developmental course in autism and its relation with behavioral outcome at 3–4 years of age. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(3), 337–350.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E., Dawson, G., Osterling, J., & Dinno, N. (2000). Brief report: Recognition of autism spectrum disorder before one year of age: a retrospective study based on home videotapes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(2), 157–162.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (1992). Tenth Revision of the Internaional Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10). Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, D. A., & Bolton, P. (1995). Brief report: atypical autism and tuberous sclerosis in a sibling pair. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 25(4), 435–442.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S., Djukic, A., Shinnar, S., Dharmani, C., & Rapin, I. (2003). Clinical characteristics of language regression in children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45(8), 508–514.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xi, C. Y., Ma, H. W., Lu, Y., Zhao, Y. J., Hua, T. Y., Zhao, Y., et al. (2007). MeCP2 gene mutation analysis in autistic boys with developmental regression. Psychiatric Genetics, 17(2), 113–116.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zafeiriou, D. I., Ververi, A., & Vargiami, E. (2007). Childhood autism and associated comorbidities. Brain and Development, 29(5), 257–272.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, A. W., Potter, N. T., Stakkestad, A., & Frye, V. H. (1995). Serum Immunoglobulins and Autoimmune Profiles in Children with Autism. Annals of Neurology, 38(3), 528–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zoghbi, H. Y. (2005). MeCP2 dysfunction in humans and mice. Journal of Child Neurology, 20(9), 736–740.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., Rogers, T., Roberts, W., Brian, J., & Szatmari, P. (2005). Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23(2–3), 143–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Temple University, 1701 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA

    Gerry A. Stefanatos

Authors
  1. Gerry A. Stefanatos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerry A. Stefanatos.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Stefanatos, G.A. Regression in Autistic Spectrum Disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 18, 305–319 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation