Abstract
The measurement of cognitive abilities across diverse cultural, racial, and ethnic groups has a contentious history, with broad political, legal, economic, and ethical repercussions. Advances in psychometric methods and converging scientific ideas about genetic variation afford new tools and theoretical contexts to move beyond the reflective analysis of between-group test score discrepancies. Neuropsychology is poised to benefit from these advances to cultivate a richer understanding of the factors that underlie cognitive test score disparities. To this end, the present article considers several topics relevant to the measurement of cognitive abilities across groups from diverse ancestral origins, including fairness and bias, equivalence, diagnostic validity, item response theory, and differential item functioning.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Education Research Association, American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, D.C.: American Education Research Association.
Ardila, A. (1995). Directions of research in cross-cultural neuropsychology. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 17, 143–150.
Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., & Puente, A. E. (1994). Neuropsychological evaluation of the Spanish speaker. New York: Springer.
Artiola i Fortuny, L., Romo, D. H., Heaton, R. K., & Pardee, R. E. (1999). Manual de normas y procedimientos para la batería neuropsicológica en Español. Tucson: AZ: m.
Bamshad, M., Wooding, S., Salisbury, B. A., & Stephens, J. C. (2004). Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race. Nature Reviews Genetics, 5, 598–609.
Beller, M., Gafni, N., & Hanani, P. (2005). Constructing, adapting, and validating admissions tests in multiple languages: The Israeli case. In R. K. Hambleton, P. F. Merenda, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 3–38). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Borsboom, D., Romeijn, J. W., & Wicherts, J. M. (2008). Measurement invariance versus selection invariance: Is fair selection possible? Psychological Methods, 13, 75–98.
Brandt, J. (2007). 2005 INS Presidential Address: neuropsychological crimes and misdemeanors. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21, 553–568.
Burchard, E. G., Ziv, E., Coyle, N., Gomez, S. L., Tang, H., Karter, A. J., Mountain, J. L., Perez-Stable, E. J., Sheppard, D., & Risch, N. (2003). The importance of race and ethnic background in biomedical research and clinical practice. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(12), 1170–1175.
Busch, R. M., Chelune, G. J., & Suchy, Y. (2005). Using norms in neuropsychological assessment of the elderly. In D. K. Attix, & K. A. Welsh-Bohmer (Eds.), Geriatric Neuropsychology (pp. 133–157). New York: Guilford.
Camilli, G., & Shepard, L. A. (1994). Methods for identifying biased test items. Volume 4. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Cleary, T. A. (1968). Test bias: prediction of grades of Negro and White students in integrated colleges. Journal of Educational Measurement, 5, 115–124.
Collins, F. S. (2004). What we do and don’t know about ‘race’, ‘ethnicity’, genetics and health at the dawn of the genome era. Nature Genetics, 36(11, Suppl.), 13–15.
Cooper, R. S., Kaufman, J. S., & Ward, R. (2003). Race and genomics. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(12), 1166–1170.
Cosentino, S., Manly, J., & Mungas, D. (2007). Do reading tests measure the same construct in multiethnic and multilingual older persons? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 228–236.
Culhane, S. E., Morera, O. F., & Watson, P. J. (2006). The assessment of factorial invariance in Need for Cognition using Hispanic and Anglo samples. The Journal of Psychology, 140(1), 53–67.
Darlington, R. B. (1971). Another look at “cultural fairness. Journal of Educational Measurement, 8, 71–82.
Dotson, V. M., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M. K., & Zonderman, A. B. (2008). Literacy-based normative data for low socioeconomic status African Americans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 21, 1–29.
Embretson, S. E., & Reise, S. P. (2000). Item response theory for psychologists. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Fletcher, R. W., & Fletcher, S. W. (2005). Clinical epidemiology: The essentials (4th ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott.
Hambleton, R. K., & Swaminathan, H. (1985). Item response theory. Principles and applications. Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff.
Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H., & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response theory. Newbury Park: Sage.
Heaton, R. K., Miller, S. W., Taylor, M. J., & Grant, I. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead-Reitan battery: Demographically-adjusted neuropsychological norms for African American and Caucasian adults. Lutz: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Helms, J. E. (1992). Why is there no study of cultural equivalence in standardized cognitive ability testing? American Psychologist, 47, 1083–1101.
Helms, J. E. (1997). The triple quandary of race, culture, and social class in standardized cognitive ability testing. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: Theories, tests, and issues (pp. 517–532). New York: Guilford.
Helms, J. E. (2002). A remedy for the Black-White test-score disparity [Comment]. American Psychologist, 57(4), 303–305.
Ivnik, R. J., Malec, J. F., Tangalos, E. R., Peterson, R. C., Kokmen, E., & Kurland, L. T. (1990). The Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT): norms for ages 55 years and older. Psychological Assessment, 2, 304–312.
Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free.
Johnson, T. P. (2006). Methods and frameworks for crosscultural measurement. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S17–S20.
Keita, S. O. Y., Kittles, R. A., Royal, C. D. M., Bonney, G. E., Furbert-Harris, P., Dunston, G. M., & Rotimi, C. N. (2004). Conceptualizing human variation. Nature Genetics, 36(11 Suppl.), S17–S20.
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Liang, J. (2002). Assessing cross-cultural comparibility in mental health among older adults. In J. H. Skinner, J. A. Teresi, D. Holmes, S. M. Stahl, & A. L. Stewart (Eds.), Multicultural measurement in older populations (pp. 11–21). New York: Springer.
Lucas, J. A., Ivnik, R. J., Willis, F. B., Ferman, T. J., Smith, G. E., Parfitt, F. C., Petersen, R. C., & Graff-Radford, N. R. (2005). Mayo’s older African Americans normative studies: normative data for commonly used clinical neuropsychological measures. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19, 162–183.
Manly, J. J. (2005). Advantages and disadvantages of separate norms for African Americans. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19, 270–275.
Manly, J. J., & Echemendia, R. J. (2007). Race-specific norms: using the model of hypertension to understand issues of race, culture, and education in neuropsychology. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(3), 319–325.
Manly, J. J., & Jacobs, D. M. (2002). Future directions in neuropsychological assessment with African Americans. In F. R. Ferraro (Ed.), Minority and cross-cultural aspects of neuropsychological assessment (pp. 79–96). Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Manly, J. J., Jacobs, D. M., Touradji, P., Small, S. A., & Stern, Y. (2002). Reading level attenuates differences in neuropsychological test performance between African American and White elders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 341–348.
Meredith, W. (1993). Measurement invariance, factor analysis and factorial invariance. Psychometrika, 58(4), 525–543.
Meredith, W., & Teresi, J. A. (2006). An essay on measurement and factorial invariance. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S69–77.
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749.
Michell, J. (1999). Measurement in psychology: A critical history of a methodological concept. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mitrushina, M., Boone, K. B., Razani, J., & D’Elia, L. F. (2005). Handbook of normative data for neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Mungas, D., Reed, B. R., Crane, P. K., Haan, M. N., & González, H. (2004). Spanish and English Neuropsychological Assessment Scales (SENAS): further development and psychometric characteristics. Psychological Assessment, 16(4), 347–359.
Mungas, D., Reed, B. R., Haan, M. N., & González, H. (2005). Spanish and English Neuropsychological Assessment Scales: relationship to demographics, language, cognition, and independent function. Neuropsychology, 19(4), 466–475.
Mungas, D., Reed, B. R., Marshall, S. C., & González, H. (2000). Development of psychometrically matched English and Spanish neuropsychological tests for older persons. Neuropsychology, 14, 209–223.
Ostrosky-Solis, F., Ardila, A., & Rosselli, M. (1999). NEUROPSI: a brief neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and education level. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 413–433.
Parra, E. J., Kittles, R. A., & Shriver, M. D. (2004). Implications of correlations between skin color and genetic ancestry for biomedical research. Nature Genetics, 36(11 Suppl.), S54–S60.
Ramirez, M., Ford, M. E., Stewart, A. L., & Teresi, J. A. (2005). Measurement issues in health disparities research. HSR: Health Services Research, 40(5), 1640–1657.
Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., & Feldman, M. W. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385.
Roth, P. L., Bevier, C. A., Bobko, P., Switzer, F. S., & Tyler, P. (2001). Ethnic group differences in cognitive ability in employment and educational settings: a meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 54, 297–330.
Royal, C. D. M., & Dunston, G. M. (2004). Changing the paradigm from ‘race’ to human genome variation. Nature Genetics, 36(11 Suppl.), S5–S7.
Sackett, P. R., Schmitt, N., Ellingson, J. E., & Kabin, M. B. (2001). High-stakes testing in employment, credentialing, and higher education. Prospects in a post-affirmative action world. American Psychologist, 56, 302–318.
Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 162–173.
Smith, G. E., Ivnik, R. J., & Lucas, J. A. (2008). Assessment techniques: Tests, test batteries, norms, and methodological approaches. In J. Morgan, & J. Ricker (Eds.), Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychology (pp. 38–57). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Steenkamp, J. B. E. M., & Baumgartner, H. (1998). Assessing measurement invariance in cross-national consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 25, 78–90.
Stewart, A. L., & Napoles-Springer, A. M. (2003). Advancing health disparities research. Can we affort to ignore measurement issues? Medical Care, 41(11), 1207–1220.
Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Teresi, J. A., & Holmes, D. (2002). Some methodological guidelines for cross-cultural comparisons. In J. H. Skinner, J. A. Teresi, D. Holmes, S. M. Stahl, & A. L. Stewart (Eds.), Multicultural measurement in older populations (pp. 3–10). New York: Springer.
Teresi, J. A., Stewart, A. L., Morales, L. S., & Stahl, S. M. (2006). Measurement in a multi-ethnic society. Overview to the special issue. Medical Care, 44(11 Suppl. 3), S3–4.
Van der Linden, W. J., & Hambleton, R. K. (1997). Item response theory: Brief history, common models, and extensions. In W. J. van der Linden, & R. K. Hambleton (Eds.), Handbook of modern item response theory (pp. 1–28). New York: Springer.
van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Newbury Park: Sage.
Van de Vijver, F. J. R., & Poortinga, Y. H. (2005). Conceptual and methodological issues in adapting tests. In R. K. Hambleton, P. F. Merenda, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 39–63). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Wilkinson, G. S. (1993). Wide Range Achievement Test 3. Wilmington: Wide Range.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pedraza, O., Mungas, D. Measurement in Cross-Cultural Neuropsychology. Neuropsychol Rev 18, 184–193 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9067-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9067-9