1 Introduction

With the spread of COVID-19, more and more people wear mask to reduce the probability of being infected. Rail transit stations with limited space are very conducive to the spread of viruses, so several governments and companies have made mandatory measures for passengers to wear masks. With the rapid development of artificial intelligence, cameras are playing an increasingly important role in rail transit stations. Cameras are widely deployed in the station entrance and have accumulated a large amount of video, which provide a solution for detecting whether passengers wear masks. The cameras installed at the entrance of rail transit station are shown in Fig. 1. The proposed algorithm can recognize whether passengers wear masks, which not only counts the data of passengers wearing masks for epidemic analysis, but also helps the station remind passengers to wear masks by using the microphones.

Fig. 1
figure 1

The cameras installed at the rail transit station

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After the outbreak of COVID-19, several face and mask detection algorithms [4, 13, 24, 27, 28, 38, 41, 42, 45] are studied. [4, 13, 24, 28, 41] propose the fast algorithms to detect face and mask, but they have some false positives and false negatives. Several face mask detection algorithms [27, 38, 42] are proposed to improve accuracy and have good results, but their speed is slow. It is difficult to improve accuracy while ensuring real-time processing. Moreover, as far as we know, there is no research on the mask detection algorithm applied to rail transit. In the rail transit, face sizes are small and face angles are diverse. There is a challenge with these algorithms for mask detection in rail transit: these algorithms are trained on datasets lacking rail transit samples, so they may have poor generalization in rail transit scenarios. Therefore, it is necessary to make a mask dataset of rail transit. Although there are many images of face and mask from rail transit, two problems still exist when applied in rail transit. First, the labeling of sample data takes a lot of time and automatic labeling causes many errors. Second, the sample data has a high degree of similarity, so the marginal benefit generated in training is very small. A lot of similar samples cause sample imbalance, making it more difficult to detect minority objects.

To solve these problems, we propose a face detection algorithm based on single shot detector (SSD) called SSD-Mask and a novel active learning for rail transit passengers. The proposed algorithm improves the accuracy to detect face and face wearing a mask, and utilizes a novel active learning method to obtain valuable samples of rail transit, so as to train a face detection model suitable for rail transit scenarios.

The contributions of this paper are as follows:

Firstly, SSD-Mask is proposed to improve accuracy while ensuring real-time processing, which optimizes the anchor aspect ratios, activation function, and loss function, and adds feature pyramid network and spatial attention module.

Secondly, a novel active learning method called semi-supervised active learning (SSAL) is proposed for screening valuable samples of rail transit and reducing sample labeling time. SSAL reduces the cost of model transfer and application, and improves the generalization of the model.

Finally, we make a high-quality mask dataset to fine-tuning the proposed algorithm. This mask dataset covers people wearing masks and face images in rail transit scenarios.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, related work is introduced in detail, which includes face mask detection, SSD, and active learning. In Section 3, SSD-Mask, and SSAL are presented. Section 4 shows the experimental results and discussion in detail. The conclusion is drawn in Section 5.

2 Related work

In this section, we introduce the work related to this paper from three aspects: face mask detection, SSD, and active learning.

2.1 Face mask detection

With more and more people wear mask, recent related works [4, 13, 24, 27, 28, 38, 41, 42, 45] that do a face detection to detect people wear mask or not. AIZOO [4] proposes a lightweight mask detection network based on SSD [23] with fast speed. [13] presents a mask detection network based on RetinaNet [22], which uses feature pyramid network to fuse high-level information and context attention module to focus on faces and masks. [28] proposes a lightweight mask detection algorithm based on SSD [23] and MobileNetV2 [37]. Based on the YOLOv2 [33], Loey et al. [24] uses ResNet50 as the backbone network to detect faces wearing masks in images. [41] applies YOLOv3 directly to face and mask detection, and compares it with Faster R-CNN [35]. [4, 13, 24, 28, 41] have fast speed, but their accuracy needs to be further improved. Sethi et al. [38] integrates SSD [23] and Faster R-CNN [35] for object detection, and uses transfer learning to fuse high-level semantic information in the feature map to improve the accuracy of the mask detection. [27] proposes a hybrid deep transfer learning model with machine learning method for mask detection, which uses deep learning to extract features and multiple machine learning methods to classify them. Baidu proposes a mask detection algorithm based on PyramidBox [42], which improves accuracy by using low-level feature pyramid network, context-sensitive predict module, and pyramid anchors. [27, 38, 42] have high accuracy, but their speed is slow. Therefore, a mask detection algorithm should be studied which has high accuracy and fast speed.

Although some companies have collected a large number of images of faces and masks, these data have not been made public. Several researchers synthesize and publishes the mask dataset. AIZOO [4] publishes a real mask dataset for the first time, and it promotes the development of mask detection. Wang et al. [45] make and test a mask dataset composed of real-world images and synthesized images. In the rail transit, face sizes are small and face angles are diverse. Mask detection model trained on other scene image may have poor generalization in rail transit scenarios. Therefore, it is necessary to make a mask dataset of rail transit. Although there are many images of face and mask from rail transit, two problems still exist when applied in rail transit. First, manual labeling takes a lot of time and automatic labeling causes many errors. Second, the sample data has a high degree of similarity, so the marginal benefit generated in training is very small. A lot of similar samples also cause sample imbalance, making it more difficult to detect minority objects.

To solve these problems, we propose SSD-Mask and SSAL for rail transit passengers. To improve accuracy while ensuring real-time processing, the anchor aspect ratios, activation function, and loss function are optimized, and feature pyramid network and spatial attention module are added. Then, SSAL is proposed for screening valuable samples of rail transit and reducing sample labeling time.

2.2 SSD

SSD [23] is proposed for object detection with fast speed and high accuracy in 2016. As shown in Fig. 2, SSD [23] sets several anchors based on different feature maps and combines predictions from multiple feature maps with different resolutions to handle objects with different aspect ratios and sizes. Backbone network is used to extract features of multiple convolutional layers and obtains multiple feature maps. The backbone network of SSD [23] is based on VGGNet, which consists of part of VGG16 [40] and extra feature layers. The extra feature layers build conv8_2, conv9_2, conv10_2 and conv11_2 based on conv7 of VGG16 [40]. When the input resolution is 300*300, SSD [23] locates and classifies the output of the backbone network that includes conv4_3, conv7, conv8_2, conv9_2, conv10_2 and conv11_2. Finally, the non-maximum suppression algorithm is used to remove redundant candidate boxes and obtain the best detection boxes. A series of improved algorithms [12, 18, 47] based on SSD [23] are proposed for object detection and achieved good results. In addition, SSD [23] is very suitable for face detection because it can obtain multiple feature maps. Many face detection algorithms [8, 19, 48, 49] are proposed based on SSD, and they have made great progress.

Fig. 2
figure 2

SSD model framework

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2.3 Active learning

With the advent of the era of big data, we have tremendous amounts of data, but the quality and labeling of the data have become a problem. A large amount of data has little effective information and is labeled for a long time, which increases the training time and does little help to the model. Active learning solves this problem by selecting the valuable samples and labeling them by experts, so few samples can be trained to get a good model. Active learning hypothesizes if a learning algorithm is allowed to choose its curious data, it will perform better with fewer data [39]. There are three scenarios in active learning: membership query synthesis, stream-based selective sampling, and pool-based active learning [39]. In this paper, we use pool-based active learning as shown in Fig. 3. Therefore, active learning below refers to pool-based active learning. Active learning sets up query strategies and utilizes the trained model to process unlabeled samples, thereby selecting valuable unlabeled samples and labeling these samples by experts. Subsequently, the labeled samples are used to retrain the model to improve the accuracy. Active learning is often used in image classification [9, 14, 16, 17, 25, 44], because the labeling of image classification task is simple and costs less time for experts. In recent years, several researches apply active learning to object detection [2, 5, 15, 30,31,32, 36, 43], which prove that active learning can effectively improve the accuracy of object detection. However, it is not solved that active learning requires a lot of time for labeling.

Fig. 3
figure 3

The pool-based active learning

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3 Methods

In this section, we introduce SSD-Mask, SSAL and mask dataset. SSD-Mask is the basis of the proposed method and is designed for face and mask detection. SSAL selects valuable rail transit images for fine-tuning SSD-Mask, which improves the robustness of SSD-Mask in rail transit scenarios. In addition, the mask dataset is made to train the proposed algorithm.

3.1 SSD-mask

To detect whether passengers wear masks, we propose a face detection algorithm called SSD-Mask based on SSD [23]. The architecture of SSD-Mask is shown in Fig. 4, including backbone network, feature pyramid network (FPN), spatial attention module (SAM), and smooth and focal loss.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Architecture of SSD-Mask

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As shown in Fig. 4, backbone network is the principal part of the neural network, which is used to extract the feature information of the image. FPN and SAM are used to enhance the feature information extracted by the backbone network. FPN enlarges the feature map of low-level layers while ensuring that high-level semantic information is not lost, which is conducive to detecting small objects. SAM produces a more distinguishable feature representation by selecting the focus position. Smooth and focal loss can effectively solve the problem of imbalance between positive and negative samples, thereby training a model with higher detection accuracy.

Compared with other methods in architecture, we don’t change the backbone of SSD because it is efficient, but focus on enhancing the features extracted from the backbone. Specifically, [4, 24, 28] directly use features extracted from the backbone network to locate and classify. [13, 41] use FPN to enhance the high-level features extracted from backbone networks. However, since faces are smaller and low-level layers contain more effective information, we choose the low-level layers convolution layers to construct FPN. Moreover, SAM is used to obtain more distinguishable feature representation. [38] combines the results of SSD [23] and Faster R-CNN [35] without modifying the framework for both.

3.1.1 Backbone network

As shown in Fig. 4, the backbone network of SSD-Mask is VGGNet [23], which consists of VGG16 [40] and extra feature layers. The backbone network uses Conv4_3 and Conv7 of VGG16 [40] to build the extra feature layers with Conv8_2, Conv9_2, Conv10_2, Conv11_2 and Conv12_2. The backbone network has a small model and fast calculations, but the effect is good.

To improve the performance of our network, the backbone network needs to match the dataset. The objects of different datasets have different aspect ratios, so we count the face aspect ratio of the dataset to make SSD-Mask match the data. There are 144,235 faces in the dataset, and the aspect ratios distribution of these faces is shown in Fig. 5. The aspect ratio of the face is mainly concentrated around 2: 1 and 1: 1. According to our experiments, the optimal aspect ratios of anchor are set.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Aspect ratios distribution of faces from mask dataset

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Activation function plays an essential role in the backbone network. Mish [26] is a novel smooth activation function as shown in Fig. 6, and the research [26] demonstrates that Mish [26] is superior to Rectified Linear Unit (ReLU) [7, 11, 29] in most models. As shown in Fig. 6, Mish [26] is smoother than ReLU [7, 11, 29], which is the reason why Mish [26] is better than ReLU [7, 11, 29].To improve the performance of the model, Mish [26] is used to instead of ReLU [7, 11, 29] in the backbone network. Mish [26] is defined as follows:

$$ f(x)=x\cdot \mathit{\tanh}\left(\mathit{\ln}\left(1+{e}^x\right)\right) $$
(1)
Fig. 6
figure 6

Activation function: Mish and ReLU

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3.1.2 Low-level feature pyramid network

Feature pyramid network (FPN) can make full use of the multi-scale features output by the backbone network. FPN is proposed by [21], which can detect object of different sizes to improve the performance of the model [1, 34]. We pay more attention to the low-dimensional information of SSD-Mask, and improve the accuracy of small faces by fusing low-dimensional information. Inspired by [21, 42], we construct a low-level feature pyramid network for the output of Conv4_3, Conv7, Conv8_2, and Conv9_2 in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Low-level feature pyramid network

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3.1.3 Spatial attention module

Attention mechanism has been widely used in object detection, which can effectively improve algorithm performance. Although the attention mechanisms such as SE [10], CBAM [46], and SK [20] enhance the accuracy of the algorithm, the inference time increases. Spatial attention module (SAM) adjusts each position of the feature map to make the model focus on areas that deserve more attention. SAM improves network performance with very little additional inference time. As shown in Fig. 4, inspired by [1], we use SAM to deal with the output from the backbone network and the feature pyramid network. SAM is denoted as

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}{x}^{\prime }= Conv(x)\\ {}y= Sigmoid\left({x}^{\prime}\right)\times x\end{array}} $$
(2)

where Conv(x) adopts pointwise convolution for input x, that is, 1*1 convolution without changing the number of channels, and Sigmoid(x′) is \( 1/1+{e}^{-{x}^{\prime }} \). Figure 8 shows how the spatial attention module works.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Spatial attention module

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3.1.4 Smooth and focal loss

The loss of SSD-Mask consists of localization loss and confidence loss:

$$ L=\frac{1}{N}\left({L}_{loc}+{L}_{\boldsymbol{conf}}\right) $$
(3)

where N is the number of matched default boxes. The localization loss based on Smooth L1 loss [6] is as follows:

$$ {L}_{loc}=\sum \limits_{i\in Pos}^N\sum \limits_{m\in \left\{ cx, cy,w,h\right\}}{x}_{ij}^k\cdot {\boldsymbol{Smooth}}_{L1}\left({l}_i^m-{\hat{g}}_j^m\right) $$
(4)

where i is the index of predicted positive box, j is the index of ground truth box, and\( {x}_{ij}^k \) is whether the predicted box i and ground truth box j match in category k. l and ĝ are the prediction box and the ground truth box, respectively. The loss regresses to offsets for the center (cx, cy) of the default bounding box and for its width (w) and height (h).

The accuracy of SSD [23] is not as high as the accuracy of the two-stage method such as FPN [21] and Cascade R-CNN [3], because SSD [23] has a problem of class imbalance in the training process. A novel loss function called focal loss is proposed to solve the class imbalance [22]. Focal loss [22] is based on cross entropy loss, making the model focus hard negatives during training by reducing the weight of easy examples. The confidence loss of SSD [23] is based on softmax loss, and we use focal loss instead of it to balance the samples. Focal loss (FL) is defined as:

$$ FL(p)=-{\alpha}_t{\left(1-{p}_t\right)}^{\gamma}\log \left({p}_t\right),{p}_t=\Big\{{\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}p\\ {}1-p\end{array}}{\displaystyle \begin{array}{c},\\ {},\end{array}}{\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}y=1\\ {}y=0\end{array}} $$
(5)

where t is the sample index, pt is the predicted probability for the class with label y = 1. αt and γ are constant (αt = 0.25 and γ = 2). Therefore, we get the confidence loss.

$$ {\displaystyle \begin{array}{c}{L}_{conf}=\sum \limits_{i\in Pos}^N{x}_{ij}^k FL\left({\hat{p}}_i^k\right)+\sum \limits_{i\in Neg} FL\left({\hat{p}}_i^0\right)\\ {}{\hat{p}}_i^k=\frac{\exp \left({p}_i^k\right)}{\sum_k\exp \left({p}_i^k\right)}\end{array}} $$
(6)

3.2 SSAL

Although there are many images of mask, two problems still exist when applied on-site. First, manual labeling takes a lot of time and automatic labeling causes many errors. Second, the sample data has a high degree of similarity, so the marginal benefit generated in training is very small. A large number of similar samples cause sample imbalance, making it more difficult to detect minority objects. To solve these problems, we propose an active learning algorithm combined with semi-supervised learning called SSAL.

As shown in Fig. 9, we demonstrate the process of annotating samples by various methods. The labeling sample process of standard active learning is shown in Fig. 9a. Although active learning can select valuable samples, manual labeling takes a lot of time. In Fig. 9b, semi-supervised learning automatically labels samples to save labeling time. However, semi-supervised learning cannot distinguish the importance of samples, and there may be wrong sample annotations. As shown in Fig. 9c, the proposed algorithm uses a query strategy to select valuable samples, which are automatically marked by semi-supervised learning. Then, the experts check and modify the samples. The semi-supervised active learning algorithm is described in detail in Table 1. The proposed algorithm greatly reduces the time of expert annotation and improves the efficiency of annotation.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Annotating samples of various methods. a Standard active learning; b Semi-supervised learning; c Semi-supervised active learning

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Table 1 Semi-supervised Active Learning Algorithm
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It is very significant to set a suitable query strategy for screening valuable samples in active learning. The query strategy we designed is to calculate the average confidence of each class and choose the smallest confidence among all classes. The query strategy is defined as:

$$ y=\mathit{\min}\left({\overline{x}}_i\right) $$
(7)

where \( {\overline{x}}_i \) is the average confidence of i-th class. If the y of an image is less than 0.3, the image is saved, and the corresponding class and localization are also saved for automatic labeling with semi-supervised learning. Although this query strategy retains samples with low average confidence, the selected samples also include many high-confidence objects, which ensure the diversity of the samples.

3.3 Datasets

We make a mask dataset consisting of various scenes images to train SSD-Mask. There are 25,631 images in this mask dataset, of which 22,631 images are used as the training set and 3000 images are used as the testing set. The dataset has two class: “face” and “mask”. “face” is a person who does not wear a mask, and “mask” is a person who wears a mask. A part of images from the mask dataset are shown in Fig. 10a. Our dataset has diverse and rich images including occlusion, irregular wearing, dense scenes, mask diversity, small faces and blurring. Both the occluded faces and faces that are not completely covered by masks are “face” class. The dataset contains a large number of faces, so we have not made the dataset public considering personal privacy. If any scholars need it, please contact us.

Fig. 10
figure 10

Mask dataset: (a) The mask dataset consisting of various scenes images; (b) The mask dataset only consisting of rail transit images

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Firstly, we collect 5000 images of rail transit. Secondly, after the training of SSD-Mask is completed, we use SSD-Mask as a detector and SSAL to screen the valuable images of rail transit to make a mask dataset of rail transit. Finally, SSAL screens 1992 valuable samples as mask dataset of rail transit. Several samples in the mask dataset consisting of rail transit images are shown in Fig. 10b. Finally, we employ the mask dataset to retrain the SSD-Mask.

3.4 Training details

We implement SSD-Mask using the PyTorch and trained the network with the NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPU. Table 2 presents the parameters of SSD-Mask in training. Besides, we train Faster R-CNN [35], SSD [23], YOLOv3 [34] and YOLOv4 [1] on the same dataset as the comparison algorithms.

Table 2 Hyper-parameters of SSD-Mask in training
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4 Results and discussion

In this section, we test the proposed algorithm and the state-of-the-art algorithms on the proposed testing set, the public mask dataset [4] and the rail transit dataset. Then, the experimental results are analyzed and discussed in detail.

4.1 Evaluation metrics

To comprehensively evaluate the algorithm results, we adopted average precision (AP), mean average precision (mAP) and frame per second (FPS) as evaluation metrics. AP is defined as

$$ AP=\int_0^1P(R) dR $$
(8)

where P is precision and R is recall. P and R can be formulated as

$$ P={T}_P/\left({T}_P+{F}_P\right) $$
(9)
$$ R={T}_P/\left({T}_P+{F}_N\right) $$
(10)

where TP,FP and FN denote true positives, false positives and false negative, respectively. The mAP is mean of AP and can be calculated as

$$ mAP=\sum \limits_c AP/c $$
(11)

where c is the number of class.

4.2 Experimental results

4.2.1 Results of SSD-mask

To clarify the effect of SSD-Mask, we test Faster R-CNN [35], YOLOv3 [34], SSD [23], YOLOv4 [1], AIZOO [4], Baidu [42] and SSD-Mask without SSAL on the proposed testing set including 3000 images. Note that the training code of AIZOO [4] and Baidu [42] do not open, so we have to use their trained weights. The detection confidence and intersection-over-union of all algorithms are 0.4 and 0.5, respectively. Table 3 shows the performance of SSD-Mask is better than Faster R-CNN [35], YOLOv3 [34], SSD [23], AIZOO [4] and Baidu [42]. Our results indicate that the proposed method is superior to them even if it did not rely on SSAL. SSD-Mask is far faster than YOLOv4 [1] with sacrificing a little bit of accuracy.

Table 3 Results on the proposed testing set
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Figure 11 demonstrates several detection results of various algorithm on the proposed testing set. In the first row, Faster R-CNN [35] has three false positives and other methods predict correctly. The second row has the occlusion face, and all algorithms predict correctly except YOLOv3 [34]. In the three row, a passenger wears mask in a wrong way. Faster R-CNN [35], YOLOv3 [34], SSD [23], AIZOO [4] and Baidu [42] detect a mask. YOLOv4 [1] detects both the face and the mask. Only our method detects a face.

Fig. 11
figure 11

Several detection results of various algorithms on the proposed testing set. (a) input (b) Faster R-CNN [35] (c) YOLOv3 [34] (d) SSD [23] (e) YOLOv4 [1] (f) AIZOO [4] (g) Baidu [42] (h) SSD-Mask

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Currently, there are few open source mask datasets, so we choose a mask dataset proposed by [4] as the testing dataset. The mask dataset has 1838 images, including 2019 faces and 1041 masks. As shown in Table 4, the proposed method has favorable results on the public mask dataset. In the face class, the proposed method is better than all comparison algorithms. YOLOv4 [1] obtains the best results in the mask class.

Table 4 Results on public mask dataset
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4.2.2 Results of SSD-mask with SSAL

The testing dataset of rail transit has 300 images of rail transit scenes, including 1027 faces and 327 masks. The results of all algorithms on the testing dataset of rail transit are shown in Table 5. The proposed method gets the highest mAP in the testing dataset of rail transit, which demonstrates that our algorithm had a good generalization in rail transit scenarios. Moreover, the proposed method has a very fast speed, second only to SSD [23] and AIZOO [4]. Figure 12 shows several detection results of various algorithm in rail transit scenarios. Faster R-CNN [35] and Baidu [42] have high recall, but false positives far exceed other algorithms. The proposed method is superior to YOLOv3 [34], SSD [23], AIZOO [4], YOLOv4 [1] and SSD-Mask in both detection number and detection confidence because it is optimized for the rail transit scenario.

Table 5 Results on the testing dataset of rail transit
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Fig. 12
figure 12

Several detection results of various algorithms on rail transit scenarios. (a) input (b) Faster R-CNN [35] (c) YOLOv3 [34] (d) SSD [23] (e) YOLOv4 [1] (f) AIZOO [4] (g) Baidu [42] (h) SSD-Mask (i) SSD-Mask + SSAL

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4.3 Discussion

4.3.1 Effect of SSD-mask

SSD-Mask has the favorable results compared with the comparison algorithms [1, 4, 34, 35, 42, 45]. As shown in Fig. 11, there are many false positives in Faster R-CNN [35], Baidu [42] and YOLOv3 [34]. It is wrong that Faster R-CNN [35] recognizes faces that are not completely covered by masks as “mask”. Moreover, Faster R-CNN [35] also recognizes some backgrounds as targets. It indicates Faster R-CNN [35] recall too many negative examples. Baidu [42] has a high recall but makes the false positives increase. YOLOv3 [34] detects both occluded faces and faces that are not completely covered by masks as “mask”. Unfortunately, SSD [23] and AIZOO [4] are also unable to distinguish between faces that are completely covered by masks and faces that are not completely. YOLOv4 [1] detects both the face and the mask. However, SSD-Mask can accurately detect both occluded faces and faces that are not completely covered by masks in Fig. 11. One reason is that the training dataset we made contains occluded faces and faces that are not completely covered by masks. Another reason is that SSD-Mask has good classification performance. As shown in Fig. 13, the classification loss of SSD-Mask is smaller than that of SSD [23], which indicates that the classification performance of the former is better than that of the latter. However, all algorithms have achieved similar results on public mask dataset. This is because the public mask dataset is so simple that all algorithms can get good results.

Fig. 13
figure 13

The classification loss of SSD and SSD-Mask

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Several ablation experiments are carried to further analyze the impact of the improved method of SSD-Mask. Table 6 proves that our proposed improvements are effective. The mAP of SSD-Mask is improved by 1.43 compared with SSD [23]. Each improvement measure is analyzed to explore how they improve the algorithm performance. Firstly, we optimize the anchor aspect ratios and activation function of backbone. The anchor aspect ratios of the SSD-Mask we set are derived from training sample statistics, so they are conducive to training the network. Mish [26] is smoother than ReLU [7, 11, 29] in Fig. 6, which may be the reason why Mish [26] is better than ReLU [7, 11, 29]. Secondly, FPN is used to fuse low-dimensional features, which is helpful for detecting small faces. Thirdly, note that SAM is the most effective of all the improvements because it allows the network to focus more on the object. Finally, we replace the softmax loss with focal loss to solve the class imbalance, which makes the network pay more attention to difficult samples during training.

Table 6 Ablation study of SSD-Mask
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4.3.2 Effect of SSAL

As shown in Table 5, SSD-Mask with SSAL shows higher performance than the state-of-the-art algorithms. These directly prove the effectiveness of SSAL. To further prove the performance of SSAL, we design a set of comparative experiments. SSAL randomly selects 1992 rail transit images for manual annotation, and these images are used to fine-tuning the SSD-Mask. Comparisons of manual annotation and SSAL on the testing dataset of rail transit is shown in Fig. 14. It is obvious that the quality of samples obtained by SSAL is better than manual annotation. The reason is that manual annotation cannot select the samples that are beneficial to the model. The labeled samples are not only repeated, but also have little effective information. Moreover, SSAL greatly reduces the labeling time. It takes 4 hours to label 1992 images manually, but it takes only 0.5 hours by SSAL.

Fig. 14
figure 14

The mAP on the testing dataset of rail transit

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5 Conclusion

With the outbreak of the epidemic, more and more passengers wear masks at rail transit stations. This paper proposes a real-time face detection algorithm to recognize whether a face is wearing a mask, and proposes a semi-supervised active learning method to improve generalization in rail transit stations. Firstly, we propose a face detection algorithm called SSD-Mask. The performance of SSD-Mask is improved by optimizing the anchor aspect ratios, activation function and loss function, and adding feature pyramid network and spatial attention module. Secondly, this paper proposes a SSAL algorithm for screening valuable samples of rail transit and annotating these samples efficiently. Semi-supervised learning can efficiently label samples and active learning can filter valuable samples. SSAL combines these two advantages and achieves favorable results on the rail transit dataset. Extensive experiments show that the proposed algorithm has high accuracy and fast speed on rail transit dataset, which is conducive to the deployment in rail transit stations. The proposed algorithm has a wide range of applications in rail transit stations, including passenger flow statistics, epidemiological analysis, and reminders of passenger who do not wear masks. Moreover, the proposed method is not only applicable to rail transit stations, but can also be used in various public places. Finally, we respect the privacy of passengers, so our algorithm does not collect and store face information of passengers.