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Genetic diversity and spatial structures of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) reveal proxies of connectivity across Mongolia and northwestern China

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Abstract

Understanding landscape connectivity and population genetic parameters is imperative for threatened species management. However, such information is lacking for the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). This study sought to explore hierarchical snow leopard gene flow patterns and drivers of genetic structure in Mongolia and China. A total of 97 individuals from across Mongolia and from the north-eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in Gansu Province to the middle of Qinghai Province in China were genotyped across 24 microsatellite loci. Distance-based frameworks were used to determine a landscape scenario best explaining observed genetic structure. Spatial and non-spatial methods were used to investigate fine-scale autocorrelation and similarity patterns as well as genetic structure and admixture. A genetic macro-division between populations in China and Mongolia was observed, suggesting that the Gobi Desert is a substantial barrier to gene flow. However, admixture and support for a resistance-based mode of isolation suggests connective routes that could facilitate movement. Populations in Mongolia had greater connectivity, indicative of more continuous habitat. Drivers of genetic structure in China were difficult to discern, and fine-scale sampling is needed. This study elucidates snow leopard landscape connectivity and helps to prioritize conservation areas. Although contact zones may have existed and occasional crossings can occur, establishing corridors to connect these areas should not be a priority. Focus should be placed on maintaining the relatively high connectivity for snow leopard populations within Mongolia and increasing research efforts in China.

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Data availability

The dataset generated during and/or analyzed during the current study is available in the DRYAD repository, https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.cvdncjt7j.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Snow Leopard Conservancy, the Britton Foundation, and the Sacramento Zoo for the support of this work.

Funding

Snow Leopard Conservancy (G2000019), Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Asia Seeds Grant (G1800082), Panthera Corporation & The Andrew Sabin Family Foundation (G1900011, G2000017), and the Chicago Zoological Society Chicago Board of Trade Endangered Species Fund (G1900014).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Charlotte Hacker and Luciano Atzeni are Co-first authors .

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA

    Charlotte Hacker, Matthew Jevit & Jan E. Janecka

  2. Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Environment and Protection, Research Institute of Forest Ecology, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, 100091, China

    Charlotte Hacker, Yuguang Zhang, Yanlin Liu, Yu Zhang, Wei Cong & Dingqiang Li

  3. Department of Research and Conservation, Wildlife Initiative Italia, Via Rovigo 12, 31040, Pederobba, TV, Italy

    Luciano Atzeni

  4. Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

    Bariushaa Munkhtsog & Naranbaatar Galsandorj

  5. Irbis Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

    Bariushaa Munkhtsog, Bayaraa Munkhtsog & Naranbaatar Galsandorj

  6. World Wildlife Fund Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 210620A, Mongolia

    Chimeddorj Buyanaa & Gantulga Bayandonoi

  7. World Wildlife Fund Altai-Sayan Field Office, Khovd City, Mongolia

    Munkhtogtokh Ochirjav

  8. World Wildlife Fund Bhutan, Thimphu, Bhutan

    John D. Farrington

  9. Yanchiwan National Nature Reserve of Gansu Province, Subei, 736300, China

    Liji Wu

  10. Snow Leopard Conservancy, Sonoma, CA, 95476, USA

    Charleen Gavette & Rodney Jackson

  11. China Felid Conservation Association, Beijing, China

    Yanlin Liu

  12. Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA

    Matthew Jevit

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  1. Charlotte Hacker
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Contributions

CEH, JEJ, CG, and RJ conceived study, CEH and LA wrote manuscript and created figures. BM, MB, NG, YZ, YL, CB, GB, MO, MJ, Yu Z, LW, WC, DL, and JEJ collected scat samples or assisted in coordinating scat sampling collection efforts. CEH, CW, Yu Z, and JEJ processed scat samples. CEH and JEJ genotyped samples. CEH and LA conducted non-spatial analyses. LA conducted spatial analyses. CEH, LA, JJ, and RJ conducted data interpretation. JEJ, RJ, and CG provided edits to manuscript drafts.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jan E. Janecka.

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Hacker, C., Atzeni, L., Munkhtsog, B. et al. Genetic diversity and spatial structures of snow leopards (Panthera uncia) reveal proxies of connectivity across Mongolia and northwestern China. Landsc Ecol 38, 1013–1031 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-022-01573-y

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