Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Homophobic Name-Calling Among Secondary School Students and Its Implications for Mental Health

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although homophobic verbal victimization has been associated with negative mental health outcomes, little actually is known about its general prevalence and relationship to mental health among adolescents. In addition, the relationship of homophobic name-calling to mental health in gender non-conforming adolescents is not well understood. This study examined the relationship between homophobic verbal victimization and mental health in adolescents, accounting for their sexual orientation and level of gender non-conformity. Survey data was collected from 513 adolescents (ages 11–17) who attended eight schools in and around Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 56.7 % of the participating adolescents were female and 11.1 % reported same-sex attractions. As hypothesized, male adolescents and those with same-sex attractions were more likely to report victimization from homophobic name-calling than were their female and non-same-sex attracted peers. Contrary to expectations, homophobic name-calling was not independently associated with psychological distress after controlling for gender, sexual attractions, gender non-conformity, and other negative treatment by peers. The hypothesis that homophobic name-calling would be more strongly associated with psychological distress in male, same-sex attracted, and gender non-conforming adolescents was also not supported. The results suggest that same-sex attracted and gender non-conforming youth are particularly vulnerable to homophobic name-calling, in the Netherlands as in other contexts, but also that other forms of peer victimization may be more strongly related to mental health.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aboud, F. E., & Joong, A. (2010). Intergroup name-calling and conditions for creating assertive bystanders. In S. R. Levy & M. Killen (Eds.), Intergroup attitudes and relations in childhood through adulthood (pp. 249–260). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aerts, S., Van Houtte, M., Dewaele, A., Cox, N., & Vincke, J. (2012). Sense of belonging in secondary schools: A survey of LGB and heterosexual students in Flanders. Journal of Homosexuality, 59(1), 90–113. doi:10.1080/00918369.2012.638548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arseneault, L. (2010). Bullying victimization in youths and mental health problems: ‘Much ado about nothing?’. Psychological Medicine, 40(5), 717–729. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aspenlieder, L., Buchanan, C. M., McDougall, P., & Sippola, L. K. (2009). Gender nonconformity and peer victimization in pre- and early adolescence. European Journal of Developmental Science, 3(1), 3–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, J. G., & Fishbein, H. D. (1998). The development of prejudice towards gays and lesbians by adolescents. Journal of Homosexuality, 36(1), 89–100. doi:10.1300/J082v36n01_06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birkett, M., Espelage, D. L., & Koenig, B. (2009). LGB and questioning students in schools: The moderating effects of homophobic bullying and school climate on negative outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 989–1000. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9389-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, L., Carlin, J. B., Thomas, L., Rubin, K., & Patton, G. (2001). Does bullying cause emotional problems? A prospective study of young teenagers. British Medical Journal, 323(7311), 480–484. doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7311.480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, H. M. W., Sandfort, T. G. M., De Bruyn, E. H., & Hakvoort, E. M. (2008). Same-sex attraction, social relationships, psychosocial functioning, and school performance in early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 59–68. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burn, S. M. (2000). Heterosexuals’ use of “fag” and “queer” to deride one another: A contributor to heterosexism and stigma. Journal of Homosexuality, 40(2), 1–11. doi:10.1300/J082v40n02_01.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Busseri, M. A., Willoughby, T., Chalmers, H., & Bogaert, A. F. (2008). On the association between sexual attraction and adolescent risk behavior involvement: Examining mediation and moderation. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 69–80. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, D., Tincknell, E., & Van Loon, J. (2004). Peer regulation of teenage sexual identities. Gender and Education, 16(3), 397–415. doi:10.1080/09540250042000251515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. W. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M., Merry, M., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2012a). Gender, ethnicity, religiosity, and same-sex sexual attraction and the acceptance of same-sex sexuality and gender non-conformity. Sex Roles. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0135-5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, K. L., Bos, H. M., & Sandfort, T. G. M. (2012b). Intergroup contact, attitudes toward homosexuality, and the role of acceptance of gender non-conformity in young adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 899–907. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.12.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(11), 1462–1482. doi:10.1177/0886260506293482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruyn, E. H. (2005). Role strain, engagement and academic achievement in early adolescence. Educational Studies, 31(1), 15–27. doi:10.1080/0305569042000310930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derogatis, L. R. (1993). The brief symptom inventory: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual. Minneapolis: National Computer Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2003). Gender and sexual identity. In R. M. Lerner, F. Jacobs, & D. Westlieb (Eds.), Handbook of applied developmental science (Vol. 1): Applying developmental science for youth and families, historical and theoretical foundations (pp. 101–121). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • Espelage, D. L., Aragon, S. R., Birkett, M., & Koenig, B. (2008). Homophobic teasing, psychological outcomes, and sexual orientation among high school students: What influence do parents and schools have? School Psychology Review, 37(2), 202–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewing Lee, E. A., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2011). Peer socialization of masculinity and femininity: Differential effects of overt and relational forms of peer victimization. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29(Pt 2), 197–213. doi:10.1111/j.2044-835X.2010.02022.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Felix, E. D., Furlong, M. J., & Austin, G. (2009). A cluster analytic investigation of school violence victimization among diverse students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(10), 1673–1695. doi:10.1177/0886260509331507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenzel, L. M. (1989). Role strain in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 9(1–2), 13–33. doi:10.1177/0272431689091003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frisell, T., Lichtenstein, P., Rahman, Q., & Långström, N. (2010). Psychiatric morbidity associated with same-sex sexual behaviour: Influence of minority stress and familial factors. Psychological Medicine, 40(02), 315–324. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005996.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, A. H., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2006). Transgender youth: Invisible and vulnerable. Journal of Homosexuality, 51(1), 111–128. doi:10.1300/J082v51n01_06.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber, J. E., & Fineran, S. (2008). Comparing the impact of bullying and sexual harassment victimization on the mental and physical health of adolescents. Sex Roles, 59(1–2), 1–13. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9431-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawker, D. S. J., & Boulton, M. J. (2000). Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: A meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), 441–455. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00629.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hegna, K., & Wichstrøm, L. (2007). Suicide attempts among Norwegian gay, lesbian and bisexual youths—General and specific risk factors. Acta Sociologica, 50(1), 21–37. doi:10.1177/0001699307074880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(3), 316–333. doi:10.1177/088626090005003006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hofstede, G. (1998). Masculinity and femininity: The taboo dimension of national cultures. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooghe, M. (2011). The impact of gendered friendship patterns on the prevalence of homophobia among Belgian late adolescents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(3), 543–550. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9635-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, R., & Fishbein, H. D. (1999). The development of prejudice and sex role stereotyping in white adolescents and white young adults. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20(3), 431–448. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00026-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, S. S. (2006). Heterosexual adolescents’ and young adults’ beliefs and attitudes about homosexuality and gay and lesbian peers. Cognitive Development, 21(4), 420–440. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.06.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, J. C., Valois, R. F., Huebner, E. S., & Drane, J. W. (2011). Life satisfaction and peer victimization among USA public high school adolescents. Child Indicators Research, 4(1), 127–144. doi:10.1007/s12187-010-9078-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, M. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 70. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-8-70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M. (2004). Proneness to, perceptions of, and responses to teasing: The influence of both intrapersonal and interpersonal factors. European Journal of Personality, 18(4), 331–349. doi:10.1002/per.522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCormack, M. (2012). The declining significance of homophobia: How teenage boys are redefining masculinity and heterosexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • McCormack, M., & Anderson, E. (2010). The re-production of homosexually-themed discourse in educationally-based organised sport. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 12(8), 913–927. doi:10.1080/13691058.2010.511271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGuire, J. K., Anderson, C. R., Toomey, R. B., & Russell, S. T. (2010). School climate for transgender youth: A mixed method investigation of student experiences and school responses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(10), 1175–1188. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9540-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nansel, T. R., Craig, W., Overpeck, M. D., Saluja, G., & Ruan, W. J. (2004). Cross-national consistency in the relationship between bullying behaviors and psychosocial adjustment. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 158(8), 730–736. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.8.730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parrott, D. J. (2008). A theoretical framework for antigay aggression: Review of established and hypothesized effects within the context of the general aggression model. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(6), 933–951. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.02.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pascoe, C. J. (2007). Dude, you’re a fag. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peugh, J. L. (2010). A practical guide to multilevel modeling. Journal of School Psychology, 48(1), 85–112. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2009.09.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkington, N. W., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1995). Victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings. Journal of Community Psychology, 23(1), 34–56. doi:10.1002/1520-6629(199501)23:1<34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plöderl, M., Faistauer, G., & Fartacek, R. (2010). The contribution of school to the feeling of acceptance and the risk of suicide attempts among Austrian gay and bisexual males. Journal of Homosexuality, 57(7), 819–841. doi:10.1080/00918369.2010.493401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer, D. C. (2001). The quest for modern manhood: Masculine stereotypes, peer culture and the social significance of homophobia. Journal of Adolescence, 24(1), 15–23. doi:10.1006/jado.2000.0370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P. (2007). Peer group socialization of homophobic attitudes and behavior during adolescence. Child Development, 78(6), 1830–1842. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01101.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P. (2008). Contextual and moderating effects of the peer group climate on use of homophobic epithets. School Psychology Review, 37(2), 188–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., & Espelage, D. L. (2005). Exploring the relation between bullying and homophobic verbal content: The Homophobic Content Agent Target (HCAT) Scale. Violence and Victims, 20(5), 513–528.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Predicting psychosocial consequences of homophobic victimization in middle school students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27(2), 175–191. doi:10.1177/0272431606294839.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., Espelage, D. L., & Koenig, B. W. (2009). Willingness to remain friends and attend school with lesbian and gay peers: Relational expressions of prejudice among heterosexual youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 952–962. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9416-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., Mereish, E. H., Digiovanni, C. D., & Koenig, B. W. (2011). The effects of general and homophobic victimization on adolescents’ psychosocial and educational concerns: The importance of intersecting identities and parent support. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 597–609. doi:10.1037/a0025095.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poteat, V. P., & Rivers, I. (2010). The use of homophobic language across bullying roles during adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31(2), 166–172. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2009.11.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J. A. W., Gygax, L., & Bailey, J. M. (2008). Sexual orientation and childhood gender nonconformity: Evidence from home videos. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 46–58. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, G., Linsenmeier, J., Gygax, L., Garcia, S., & Bailey, J. (2010). Dissecting “Gaydar”: Accuracy and the role of masculinity–femininity. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 124–140. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9405-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, S. T., Sinclair, K. O., Poteat, V. P., & Koenig, B. W. (2012). Adolescent health and harassment based on discriminatory bias. American Journal of Public Health, 102(3), 493–495. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G. M., Bos, H. M. W., Collier, K. L., & Metselaar, M. (2010). School environment and the mental health of sexual minority youths: A study among Dutch young adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 100(9), 1696–1700. doi:10.2105/Ajph.2009.183095.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, K. O., Bauman, S., Poteat, V., Koenig, B., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Cyber and bias-based harassment: Associations with academic, substance use, and mental health problems. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50(5), 521–523. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.09.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thurlow, C. (2001). Naming the “outsider within”: Homophobic pejoratives and the verbal abuse of lesbian, gay and bisexual high-school pupils. Journal of Adolescence, 24(1), 25–38. doi:10.1006/jado.2000.0371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R. B., McGuire, J. K., & Russell, S. T. (2012). Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 187–196. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van de Ven, P. (1994). Comparisons among homophobic reactions of undergraduates, high-school-students, and young offenders. Journal of Sex Research, 31(2), 117–124. doi:10.1080/00224499409551738.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waldo, C. R., Hesson-McInnis, M. S., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual young people: A structural model comparing rural university and urban samples. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26(2), 307–334. doi:10.1023/A:1022184704174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widmer, E. D., Treas, J., & Newcomb, R. (1998). Attitudes toward nonmarital sex in 24 countries. Journal of Sex Research, 35(4), 349–358. doi:10.1080/00224499809551953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, T., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. (2005). Peer victimization, social support, and psychosocial adjustment of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(5), 471–482. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-7264-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyss, S. E. (2004). “This was my hell”: The violence experienced by gender non-conforming youth in U.S. high schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(5), 709–730. doi:10.1080/0951839042000253676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, R., & Sweeting, H. (2004). Adolescent bullying, relationships, psychological well-being, and gender-atypical behavior: A gender diagnosticity approach. Sex Roles, 50(7–8), 525–537. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000023072.53886.86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The preparation of this manuscript was supported by NIMH center Grant P30-MH43520 (P.I.: Anke A. Ehrhardt, Ph.D.) to the HIV Center for Clinical and Behavioral Studies. We wish to thank the VIOS Initiative for facilitating access to the schools that participated in this study; the participating schools and students; Marijke Metselaar for coordinating data collection; and Gabriёl van Beusekom for assisting with data analysis.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. HIV Center for Clinical and Behavioral Studies, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University, 1051 Riverside Drive, PI Unit 15, New York, NY, 10032, USA

    Kate L. Collier & Theo G. M. Sandfort

  2. Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94208, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Henny M. W. Bos

  3. The Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Box 951476, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA

    Henny M. W. Bos

Authors
  1. Kate L. Collier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Henny M. W. Bos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Theo G. M. Sandfort
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kate L. Collier.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Collier, K.L., Bos, H.M.W. & Sandfort, T.G.M. Homophobic Name-Calling Among Secondary School Students and Its Implications for Mental Health. J Youth Adolescence 42, 363–375 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9823-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9823-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation