Abstract
Parenting behaviors have been linked to children’s self regulation, but it is less clear how they relate to adolescent psychological flexibility. Psychological flexibility is a broad construct that describes an individual’s ability to respond appropriately to environmental demands and internal experiences in the service of their goals. We examined the longitudinal relationships between perceived parenting style and psychological flexibility among students at five Australian schools (N = 749) over 6 years, beginning in Grade 7 (50.3% female, mean age 12.39 years). Parenting style was measured in Grades 7 and 12, and psychological flexibility from Grade 9 through 12. Psychological flexibility decreased, on average, with age. Multi-level modelling indicated that authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control) in Grade 7 predicted later (low) psychological flexibility. Moreover, increases in authoritarian parenting and decreases in authoritative parenting (high warmth and control) were associated with adolescent psychological flexibility across the high school years. Change in parenting predicted future psychological flexibility but did not predict change over time. Structural Equation Modelling revealed that adolescent psychological flexibility in Grade 9 predicted later decreases in authoritarian and increases in authoritative parenting. We discuss the implications of these findings for understanding how parenting changes and the consequences of such change for the development of psychological flexibility.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Albrecht, A. K., Galambos, N. L., & Jansson, S. M. (2007). Adolescents’ internalizing and aggressive behaviors and perceptions of parents’ psychological control: A panel study examining direction of effects. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 673–684.
Arim, R. G., Dahinten, V. S., Marshall, S. K., & Shapka, J. D. (2011). An examination of the reciprocal relationships between adolescents’ aggressive behaviors and their perceptions of parental nurturance. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 207–220.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Schools, Australia, 2010. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.
Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.
Barber, L. K., Bagsby, P. G., & Munz, D. C. (2010). Affect regulation strategies for promoting (or preventing) flourishing emotional health. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 663–666.
Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95.
Bell, R. Q. (1968). A reinterpretation of the direction of effects in studies of socialization. Psychological Review, 75, 81–95.
Blackledge, J. T., & Hayes, S. C. (2001). Emotion regulation in acceptance and commitment therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57, 243–255.
Bulcroft, R. A., Carmody, D. C., & Bulcroft, K. A. (1996). Patterns of parental independence giving to adolescents: Variations by race, age, and gender of child. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 58, 866–883.
Buri, J. R. (1991). Parental Authority Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57, 110–119.
Campos, J. J., Mumme, D. L., Kermoian, R., & Campos, R. G. (1994). A functionalist perspective on the nature of emotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 284–303.
Chawla, N., & Ostafin, B. (2007). Experiential avoidance as a functional dimensional approach to psychopathology: An empirical review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 871–890.
Cillessen, A. H. N., & Borch, C. (2006). Developmental trajectories of adolescent popularity: A growth curve modelling analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 935–959.
Cumsille, P., Darling, N., Flaherty, B., & Martinez, M. L. (2009). Heterogeneity and change in the patterning of adolescents’ perceptions of the legitimacy of parental authority: A latent transition model. Child Development, 80, 418–432.
Duncan, T., Duncan, S., & Strycker, L. (2006). An introduction to latent variable growth curve modeling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., et al. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48, 90–101.
Finkenauer, C., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2005). Parenting behaviour and adolescent behavioural and emotional problems: The role of self control. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 58–69.
Gloster, A. T., Klotsche, J., Chaker, S., Hummel, K. V., & Hoyer, J. (2011). Assessing psychological flexibility: What does it add above and beyond existing constructs? Psychological Assessment, 23, 970–982.
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 243–268.
Gray, M. R., & Steinberg, L. (1999). Unpacking authoritative parenting: Reassessing a multidimensional construct. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 61, 574–587.
Greco, L. A., & Eifert, G. H. (2004). Treating parent-adolescent conflict: Is acceptance the missing link for an integrative family therapy? Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 11, 305–314.
Greco, L. A., Lambert, W., & Baer, R. A. (2008). Psychological inflexibility in childhood and adolescence: Development and evaluation of the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for youth. Psychological Assessment, 20, 93–102.
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 348–362.
Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 95–103.
Grusec, J. E., & Davidov, M. (2010). Integrating different perspectives on socialization theory and research: A domain-specific approach. Child Development, 81, 687–709.
Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). The impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 32, 4–19.
Grusec, J. E., Goodnow, J. J., & Kuczynski, L. (2000). New directions in analyses of parenting contributions to children’s acquisition of values. Child Development, 71, 205–211.
Hayes, L., Hudson, A., & Matthews, J. (2003). Parental monitoring: A process model of parent-adolescent interaction. Behaviour Change, 20, 13–24.
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. B., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1–25.
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D., et al. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model. The Psychological Record, 54, 553–578.
Heaven, P. C. L., & Ciarrochi, J. (2007). Personality and religious values among adolescents: A three-wave longitudinal analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 98, 681–694.
Heaven, P. C. L., & Ciarrochi, J. (2008a). Parental styles, conscientiousness, and academic performance in high school: A three-wave longitudinal study. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 451–461.
Heaven, P., & Ciarrochi, J. (2008b). Parental styles, gender and the development of hope and self-esteem. European Journal of Personality, 22, 707–724.
Jaffe, M., Gullone, E., & Hughes, E. K. (2010). The roles of temperamental dispositions and perceived parenting behaviours in the use of two emotion regulation strategies in late childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 47–59.
Kakihara, F., Tilton-Weaver, L., Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2010). The relationship of parental control to youth adjustment: Do youths’ feelings about their parents play a role? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1442–1456.
Kashdan, T. B., Barrios, V., Forsyth, J. P., & Steger, M. F. (2006). Experiential avoidance as a generalized psychological vulnerability: Comparisons with coping and emotion regulation strategies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1301–1320.
Kashdan, T. B., & Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 467–480.
Krause, E. D., Mendelson, T., & Lynch, T. R. (2003). Childhood emotional invalidation and adult psychological distress: The mediating role of emotional inhibition. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 199–213.
Kremen, A. M., & Block, J. (1998). The roots of ego-control in young adulthood: Links with parenting in early childhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1062–1075.
Larsen, R. W. (2011). Positive development in a disorderly world. Journal of Research on Adolescence,. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00707.x.
Liem, J. H., Cavell, E. C., & Lustig, K. (2010). The influence of authoritative parenting during adolescence on depressive symptoms in young adulthood: Examining the mediating roles of self-development and peer support. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 171, 73–92.
Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., & Berzonsky, M. D. (2007). Parental psychological control and dimensions of identity formation in emerging adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 546–550.
Manzeske, D. P., & Stright, A. D. (2009). Parenting styles and emotion regulation: The role of behavioral and psychological control during young adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 16, 223–229.
McEwen, C., & Flouri, E. (2009). Fathers’ parenting, adverse life events, and adolescents’ emotional and eating disorder symptoms: The role of emotion regulation. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 206–216.
Mitmansgruber, H., Beck, T. N., Hofer, S., & Schussler, G. (2009). When you don’t like what you feel: Experiential avoidance, mindfulness and meta-emotion in emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 448–453.
Moilanen, K. L. (2007). The adolescent self-regulatory inventory: The development and validation of a questionnaire of short-term and long-term self regulation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 835–848.
Moilanen, K. L., Shaw, D. S., & Fitzpatrick, A. (2010). Self regulation in early adolescence: Relations with mother-son relationship quality and maternal regulatory support and antagonism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1357–1367.
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of the family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.
Nelson, L. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Christensen, K. J., Evans, C. A., & Carroll, J. S. (2011). Parenting in emerging adulthood: An examination of parenting clusters and correlates. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 730–743.
Nezlek, J. R. (2001). Multilevel random coefficient analyses of event and interval-contingent data in social and personality psychology research. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 771–785.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Christensen, K. J. (2010). Empathy and self regulation as mediators between parenting and adolescents’ prosocial behaviour toward strangers, friends and family. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 545–551.
Pardini, D. A. (2008). Novel insights into longstanding theories of bidirectional parent–child influences: Introduction to the special section. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 627–631.
Rashbash, J., Steele, F., Browne, W., & Prosser, B. (2004). ‘MLwiN’, 2.01 edition. London: Institute of Education, University of London.
Rosenthal, M., Polusny, M. A., & Follette, V. M. (2006). Avoidance mediates the relationship between perceived criticism in the family of origin and psychological distress in adulthood. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 6, 87–102.
Roth, G., Assor, A., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2009). The emotional and academic consequences of parental conditional regard: Comparing conditional positive regard, conditional negative regard, and autonomy support as parenting practices. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1119–1142.
Singer, J., & Willett, J. (2003). Applied longitudinal analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford: University Press.
Smetana, J. G. (1995). Parenting styles and conceptions of parental authority during adolescence. Child Development, 66, 299–316.
Smetana, J. G., Campione-Barr, N., & Daddis, C. (2004). Longitudinal development of family decision making: Defining healthy behavioral autonomy for middle-class African American adolescents. Child Development, 75, 1418–1434.
Smetana, J. G., & Daddis, C. (2002). Domain-specific antecedents of parental psychological control and monitoring: The role of parenting beliefs and practices. Child Development, 73, 563–580.
Steinberg, L. (2000). The family at adolescence: transition and transformation. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27, 170–178.
Steinberg, L. (2001). We know some things: Parent-adolescent relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 1–19.
Stice, E., & Barrera, M. (1995). A longitudinal examination of the reciprocal relations between perceived parenting and adolescents’ substance use and externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 31, 322–334.
Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271–322.
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: a theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52.
Van den Akker, A., Dekovic, M., & Prinzie, P. (2010). Transitioning to adolescence: How changes in child personality and overreactive parenting predict adolescent adjustment problems. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 151–163.
Wegner, D. M. (1994). Ironic processes of mental control. Psychological Review, 101, 34–52.
Wegner, D. M., & Zanakos, S. (1994). Chronic thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 62, 615–640.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Williams, K.E., Ciarrochi, J. & Heaven, P.C.L. Inflexible Parents, Inflexible Kids: A 6-Year Longitudinal Study of Parenting Style and the Development of Psychological Flexibility in Adolescents. J Youth Adolescence 41, 1053–1066 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9744-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9744-0