Abstract
The Gambling Craving Scale (GACS) is a multifaceted measure of gambling craving. Initial validation work by Young and Wohl (2009) in university student samples showed that the GACS had a three-factor structure capturing dimensions of Desire, Anticipation, and Relief. Despite its potential clinical utility as a measure of craving, the GACS has yet to be validated in people seeking treatment for gambling problems. Accordingly, we examined the psychometric properties in a sample of people (N = 209; Mage = 37.66; 62.2% female) participating in a randomized controlled trial testing a novel online treatment for problem gambling. We predicted the GACS would have a three-factor structure. In addition, we also examined measurement invariance across sex and problem gambling risk status. Finally, we assessed concurrent validity of the factors with other measures of problem gambling severity and involvement. Exploratory structural equation modeling findings supported a three-factor structure that was invariant across the groups tested. Each of the Desire, Anticipation, and Relief subscales were significant positive predictors of problem gambling severity and symptoms, and some form of gambling behaviour. Findings show the GACS is a promising scale to assess multidimensional craving experiences among people in treatment for gambling problems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Given ethics requirements, please contact the corresponding author.
References
Ashrafioun, L., McCarthy, A., & Rosenberg, H. (2012). Assessing the impact of cue exposure on craving to gamble in university students. Journal of Gambling Studies, 28(3), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-011-9262-0
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2009). Exploratory structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 16(3), 397–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510903008204
Bilevicius, E., Single, A., Baumgartner, C., Bui, V., Kempe, T., Schaub, M. P., Stewart, S. H., MacKillop, J., Hodgins, D. C., Wardell, J. D., O’Connor, R., Read, J., Hadjistavropoulos, H., Sundstrom, C., & Keough, M. T. (2020). Developing and testing the effectiveness of a novel online integrated treatment for problem gambling and tobacco smoking: A protocol for an open-label randomized controlled trial. Trials, 21, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-020-04867-1
Bouchard, S., Robillard, G., Giroux, I., Jacques, C., Loranger, C., St-Pierre, M., Chrétien, M., & Goulet, A. (2017). Using virtual reality in the treatment of gambling disorder: The development of a new tool for cognitive behavior therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 27. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00027
Brevers, D., & Noël, X. (2013). Pathological gambling and the loss of willpower: A neurocognitive perspective. Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology, 3, 21592. https://doi.org/10.3402/snp.v3i0.21592
Bui, V., Baumgartner, C., Bilevicius, E., Single, A., Vedelago, L., Morris, V., Kempe, T., Schaub, M. P., Stewart, S. H., MacKillop, J., Hodgins, D. C., Wardell, J. D., O’Connor, R., Read, J., Hadjistavropoulos, H. D., Sundström, C., Dermody, S., Kim, A. H., & Keough, M. T. (2023). Efficacy of a novel online integrated treatment for problem gambling and tobacco smoking: Results of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 12(1), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2022.00081
Caillon, J., Grall-Bronnec, M., Perrot, B., Leboucher, J., Donnio, Y., Romo, L., & Challet-Bouju, G. (2019). Effectiveness of at-risk gamblers’ temporary self-exclusion from internet gambling sites. Journal of Gambling Studies, 35(2), 601–615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-018-9782-y
Caler, K., Garcia, J. R. V., & Nower, L. (2016). Assessing problem gambling: A review of classic and specialized measures. Current Addiction Reports, 3, 437–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-016-0118-7
Canale, N., Cornil, A., Giroux, I., Bouchard, S., & Billieux, J. (2019). Probing gambling urge as a state construct: Evidence from a sample of community gamblers. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 33(2), 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000438
Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464–504.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
Ciccarelli, M., Nigro, G., Griffiths, M. D., Cosenza, M., & D’Olimpio, F. (2016). Attentional biases in problem and non-problem gamblers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 198, 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.03.009
Ciccarelli, M., Cosenza, M., D’Olimpio, F., Griffiths, M. D., & Nigro, G. (2019). An experimental investigation of the role of delay discounting and craving in gambling chasing behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 93, 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.02.002
Ciccarelli, M., Cosenza, M., Nigro, G., & D’Olimpio, F. (2022). Does craving increase gambling severity? The role of attentional bias. Journal of Affective Disorders, 317, 403–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.08.068
Dowling, N. A., Cowlishaw, S., Jackson, A. C., Merkouris, S. S., Francis, K. L., & Christensen, D. R. (2015). Prevalence of psychiatric co-morbidity in treatment-seeking problem gamblers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49(6), 519–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867415575774
Dunsmuir, P., Smith, D., Fairweather-Schmidt, A., Riley, B., & Battersby, M. (2018). Gender differences in temporal relationships between gambling urge and cognitions in treatment-seeking adults. Psychiatry Research, 262, 282–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.02.028
Fernie, B. A., Caselli, G., Giustina, L., Donato, G., Marcotriggiani, A., & Spada, M. M. (2014). Desire thinking as a predictor of gambling. Addictive Behaviors, 39(4), 793–796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.010
Ferris, J., & Wynne, H. (2001). The Canadian Problem Gambling Index: Final report. Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse.
Flora, D. B. (2020). Your coefficient alpha is probably wrong, but which coefficient omega is right? A tutorial on using R to obtain better reliability estimates. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 3(4), 484–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/2515245920951747
Gooding, P., & Tarrier, N. (2009). A systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioural interventions to reduce problem gambling: Hedging our bets? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(7), 592–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.04.002
Grant, J. E., & Potenza, M. N. (2005). Tobacco use and pathological gambling. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 17(4), 237–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/10401230500295370
Grant, J. E., Kim, S. W., Odlaug, B. L., & Potenza, M. N. (2008). Daily tobacco smoking in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers: Clinical correlates and co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 2(4), 178–184. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181878673
Grant, J. E., Donahue, C. B., Odlaug, B. L., & Kim, S. W. (2011). A 6-month follow-up of imaginal desensitization plus motivational interviewing in the treatment of pathological gambling. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 23(1), 3–10.
Hodgins, D. C., Currie, S. R., Currie, G., & Fick, G. H. (2009). Randomized trial of brief motivational treatments for pathological gamblers: More is not necessarily better. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(5), 950–960. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016318
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Kim, S. W., Grant, J. E., Potenza, M. N., Blanco, C., & Hollander, E. (2009). The Gambling Symptom Assessment Scale (G-SAS): A reliability and validity study. Psychiatry Research, 166(1), 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.11.008
Kruse-Diehr, A. J., Shamblen, S. R., & Courser, M. W. (2022). Longitudinal assessment of a manualized group treatment program for gambling disorder: The Ohio problem gambling treatment model for adults with co-occurring disorders. Journal of Gambling Studies, 38(4), 1493–1502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-021-10089-0
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: A practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Mallorquí-Bagué, N., Mestre-Bach, G., & Testa, G. (2023). Craving in gambling disorder: A systematic review. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 12(1), 53–79. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2022.00080
Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., & Morin, A. J. S. (2012). Measurement invariance of big-five factors over the life span: ESEM tests of gender, age, plasticity, maturity, and la dolce vita effects. Developmental Psychology, 49(6), 1194–1218. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026913
Marsh, H. W., Morin, A. J., Parker, P. D., & Kaur, G. (2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling: An integration of the best features of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10, 85–110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153700
McDonald, R. P. (1999). Test theory: A unified treatment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Merkouris, S. S., Thomas, A. C., Shandley, K. A., Rodda, S. N., Oldenhof, E., & Dowling, N. A. (2016). An update on gender differences in the characteristics associated with problem gambling: A systematic review. Current Addiction Reports, 3, 254–267.
Mushquash, A. R., Sherry, S. B., MacKinnon, S. P., Mushquash, C. J., & Stewart, S. H. (2014). Heavy episodic drinking is a trait-state: A cautionary note. Substance Abuse, 35, 222–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2013.876486
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.). Muthén & Muthén.
Oei, T. P., & Gordon, L. M. (2008). Psychosocial factors related to gambling abstinence and relapse in members of Gamblers Anonymous. Journal of Gambling Studies, 24(1), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-007-9071-7
Ong, H. S. R., Peh, C. X., Asharani, P. V., & Guo, S. (2016). Factor structure of the gambling symptom assessment scale among treatment-seeking adults in Singapore. International Gambling Studies, 16(3), 442–454.
Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2016). Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review, 41, 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004
Rueger, S. Y., Trela, C. J., Palmeri, M., & King, A. C. (2012). Self-administered web-based timeline followback procedure for drinking and smoking behaviors in young adults. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73(5), 829–833. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.829
Saunders, J. B., Aasland, O. G., Babor, T. F., de la Fuente, J. R., & Grant, M. (1993). Development of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): WHO collaborative project on early detection of persons with harmful alcohol consumption: II. Addiction, 88(6), 791–804. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1993.tb02093.x
Shead, N. W., Champod, A. S., & MacDonald, A. (2020). Effect of a brief meditation intervention on gambling cravings and rates of delay discounting. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 18(5), 1247–1263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00133-x
Smith, D., Harvey, P., Battersby, M., Pols, R., Oakes, J., & Baigent, M. (2010). Treatment outcomes and predictors of drop out for problem gamblers in South Australia: A cohort study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(10), 911–920. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048674.2010.493502
Smith, D. P., Battersby, M. W., Pols, R. G., Harvey, P. W., Oakes, J. E., & Baigent, M. F. (2015). Predictors of relapse in problem gambling: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Gambling Studies, 31, 299–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-013-9408-3
Stewart, M. J., & Wohl, M. J. A. (2013). Pop-up messages, dissociation, and craving: How monetary limit reminders facilitate adherence in a session of slot machine gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(1), 268–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029882
Takeuchi, H., Kawada, R., Tsurumi, K., Yokoyama, N., Takemura, A., Murao, T., Murai, T., & Takahashi, H. (2016). Heterogeneity of loss aversion in pathological gambling. Journal of Gambling Studies, 32(4), 1143–1154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-015-9587-1
Thompson, B. (2004). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10694-000
Tiffany, S. T., & Drobes, D. J. (1991). The development and initial validation of a questionnaire on smoking urges. British Journal of Addiction, 86(11), 1467–1476. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1991.tb01732.x
van der Tempel, J., McDermott, K., Niepage, M., Afifi, T. O., McMain, S., Jindani, F., Singer, I., Paniak, I., Anwer, S., Menezes, K., Lobo, D., & Zack, M. (2020). Examining the effects of mindfulness practice and trait mindfulness on gambling symptoms in women with gambling disorder: A feasibility study. International Gambling Studies, 20(1), 114–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/14459795.2019.1686766
van Zyl, L. E., & Ten Klooster, P. M. (2022). Exploratory structural equation modeling: Practical guidelines and tutorial with a convenient online tool for Mplus. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 795672. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.795672
Wood, R. T., & Griffiths, M. D. (2007). A qualitative investigation of problem gambling as an escape-based coping strategy. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 80(Pt 1), 107–125. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608306X107881
Young, M. M., & Wohl, M. J. (2009). The Gambling Craving Scale: Psychometric validation and behavioral outcomes. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23(3), 512–522. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015043
Funding
This research was supported by general operating funds provided by York University to MTK. AMB was supported by the Social Sciences & Humanities Research Council through a Joseph Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship-Doctoral. SHS was supported through a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Addictions and Mental Health. JM was supported by the Peter Boris Chair in Addictions Research and a Canada Research Chair in Translational Addiction Research (CRC-2020–00170).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AB: analyzed the data and wrote substantive sections of the manuscript;
LV: wrote sections of the manuscript and provided overall feedback on the final draft;
SGC: provided feedback on the manuscript, and contributed to statistical procedures;
CB: contributed substantially to trial flow and data collection;
MPS: helped to secure funding for the project, contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
SHS: contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
JM: helped to secure funding for the project, contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
DCH: helped to secure funding for the project, contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
JDW: contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
RMO: helped to secure funding for the project, contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
HSK: contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript;
MTK: project lead, secured funding for the project, contributed to treatment development and trial flow, and provided feedback on the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
This online study was approved by the York University Research Ethics Board (REB #2637). The study procedures were carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent
All subjects were informed about the study and all provided informed consent.
Competing Interests
The Authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Battaglia, A.M., Vedelago, L., Coelho, S.G. et al. Psychometric Validation of the Gambling Craving Scale in a Treatment-Seeking Sample. J Gambl Stud (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-024-10306-6
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-024-10306-6