Abstract
This prospective population-based study explored whether mothers who maltreat had different risk and protective factors than mothers who don’t including the mother’s age when they had their first child, the number of births, marital status, whether the mothers were maltreated as a child and race. This study used data from the Queensland Cross-sector Research Collaboration (QCRC) repository, which included 18,019 mothers born in Queensland during 1983 or 1984 who were aged between 30 or 31 years at the time of data extraction. Mothers were categorised as maltreating (n = 998) or non-maltreating (n = 17,021) based on whether they had substantiated contact with the child protection system, and differences in risk/protective factors were explored. Results indicated that mothers who maltreat were more likely than mothers who don’t to have their first child at a younger age, significantly more children, less likely to be married, more likely to be Indigenous, and more likely to have experienced childhood maltreatment. Implications for policy and practice are discussed, including the need for culturally appropriate home visitation programmes and parenting programmes to reduce the likelihood of child maltreatment perpetration.
Highlights
-
The Queensland population-based, longitudinal linked administrative dataset was used to create a comparison groups of mothers who maltreat and those who don’t. There were significant differences between the two groups based on the risk/protective factors associated with whether there was child maltreatment across the lifecourse.
-
The results showed significant correlations among all risk/protective factors associated with child maltreatment across the lifecourse.
-
The strongest predictor of child maltreatment perpetration was the mother’s history of maltreatment victimisation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allard, T. (2010). Understanding and preventing indigenous offending. Indigenous Justice Clearinghouse, National Justice CEOs Group
Allard, T., McCarthy, M., & Stewart, A. (2020). Costing Indigenous and non-Indigenous offending trajectories: Establishing better estimates to assist the evidence base and prevent offending. Report to the Criminology Research Advisory Council. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology
Almuneef, M. A., Alghamdi, L. A., & Saleheen, H. N. (2016). Family profile of victims of child abuse and neglect in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 37, 882–888. https://doi.org/10.15537/smj.2016.8.14654
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). 4725.0—Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander wellbeing: A focus on children and youth, Apr 2011. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4725.0Chapter310Apr%202011
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). 2071.0—Census of population and housing: Reflecting Australia—Stories from the census, 2016. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20Features~Aboriginal%20and%20Torres%20Strait%20islander%20Population%20Article~12
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018). 3301.0—Births, Australia, 2018. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3301.0
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2019). 4517.0—Prisoners in Australia, 2019. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/crime-and-justice/prisoners-australia/2019
Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS). (2020). Child protection and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. Victoria: Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://aifs.gov.au/cfca/sites/default/files/publication-documents/2001_child_protection_and_atsi_children.pdf
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). (2018). Child protection Australia 2016-17. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/child-protection/child-protection-australia-2016-17/data
Belsky, J., & Vondra (1989). Lessons from child abuse: The determinants of parenting. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 153–202). Cambridge University Press
Berger, L. M. (2004). Income, family structure, and child maltreatment risk. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 725–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.02.017
Berlin, L., Appleyard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Intergenerational continuity in child maltreatment: Mediating mechanisms and implications for prevention. Child Development, 82, 162–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01547.x
Brown, J., Cohen, P., Johnson, J. G., & Salzinger, S. (1998). A longitudinal analysis of risk factors for child maltreatment: Findings of a 17-year prospective study of officially recorded and self-reported child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 1065–1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00087-8
Campbell, K. A., Cook, L. J., LaFleur, B. J., & Keenan, H. T. (2010). Household, family, and child risk factors after an investigation for suspected child maltreatment: A missed opportunity for prevention. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164, 943–949. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.166
Carmody, T. (2013). Taking responsibility: A roadmap for Queensland child protection. http://www.childprotectioninquiry.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/202625/QCPCI-FINAL-REPORT-web-version.pdf
Chang, J. J., Theodore, A. D., Martin, S. L., & Runyan, D. K. (2008). Psychological abuse between parents: Associations with child maltreatment from a population-based sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 819–829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j,chiabu.2007.11.003
Child Welfare Information Gateway (2020). Child maltreatment 2018: Summary of key findings. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Children’s Bureau. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/canstats.pdf
Chng, G. S., Li, D., Chu, C. M., Ong, T., & Lim, F. (2018). Family profiles of maltreated children in Singapore: A latent class analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 465–475
Christensen, D., Davis, G., Draper, G., Mitrou, F., McKeown, S., Lawrence, D., McAullay, D., Pearson, G., Rikkers, W., & Zubrick, S. R. (2014). Evidence for the use of an algorithm in resolving inconsistent and missing Indigenous status in administrative data collections. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 49, 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1839-4655.2014.tb00322.x
Daniel, B. M., & Taylor, J. (2006). Gender and child neglect: Theory, research and policy. Critical Social Policy, 26, 426–439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018306062593
Delfabbro, P., Hirte, C., Rogers, N., & Wilson, R. (2010). The over-representation of young Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people in the South Australian child system: A longitudinal analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1418–1425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.06.011
DeLisi, M., & Piquero, A. R. (2011). New frontiers in criminal careers research, 2000-2011: A state-of-the-art review. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.05.001
De Paul, J., & Domenech, L. (2000). Childhood history of abuse and child abuse potential in adolescent mothers: A longitudinal study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00124-1
Department of Child Safety, Youth and Women. (2018). Child Protection Act 1999: An Act about the protection of children, and for other purposes. https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/view/whole/html/inforce/current/act-1999-010
Department of Child Safety, Youth and Women. (2020a). Strategy and action plan for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and families. https://www.csyw.qld.gov.au/campaign/supporting-families/background/strategy-action-plan-aboriginal-torres-strait-islander-children-families
Department of Child Safety, Youth and Women. (2020b). Substantiations. https://www.csyw.qld.gov.au/child-family/our-performance/investigation-assessment-phase/substantiations
Dixon, L., Browne, K., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). Risk factors of parents abused as children: A mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment (part 1). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 47–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00339.xEJ951561
Drake, B., & Johnson-Reid, M. (1999). Some thoughts on the increasing use of administrative data in child maltreatment research. Child Maltreatment, 4, 308–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559599004004004
Drake, B., Jolley, J. M., Lanier, P., Fluke, J., Barth, R. P., & Johnson-Reid, M. (2011). Racial bias in child protection? A comparison of competing explanations using national data. Pediatrics, 127, 471–478. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1710
Drevin, J., Hallqvist, J., Sonnander, K., Rosenblad, A., Pingel, R., & Bjelland, E. K. (2019). Childhood abuse and unplanned pregnancies: A cross-sectional study of women in the Norwegian mother and child cohort study. An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 127, 438–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.16037
Dubowitz, H., Kim, J., Black, M. M., Weisbart, C., Semiatin, J., & Magder, L. S. (2011). Identifying children at high risk for a child maltreatment report. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35, 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/chiabu.2010.09.003
Dufour, S., Lavergne, C., Larrivee, M., & Trocme, N. (2008). Who are these parents involved in child neglect? A differential analysis by parent gender and family structure. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.09.002
Egeland, B., Bosquet, M., & Chung, A. L. (2002). Continuities and discontinuities in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment: Implications for breaking the cycle of abuse. In K. D. Browne, H. Hanks, P. Stratton & C. E. Hamilton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse: A handbook (pp. 217–232). Wiley
Farrington, D. P. (1991). Longitudinal research strategies: Advantages, problems, and prospects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199105000-00003
Farrington, D. P., & Loeber, R. (2013). Two approaches to developmental/life-course theorizing. In F. Cullen & P. Wilcox (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminological theory (pp. 226–252). Oxford University Press
Farrington, D. P. (2017). Integrated developmental and life-course theories of offending. Routledge
Gracey, M., & King, M. (2009). Indigenous health part 1: Determinants and disease patterns. The Lancet, 374, 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60914-4
Greger, H. K., Myhre, A. K., Lydersen, S., & Jozefiak, T. (2016). Child maltreatment and quality of life: A study of adolescents in residential care. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 14, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-016-0479-6
Higgins, D. J., & McCabe, M. P. (2000). Multi-type maltreatment and the long-term adjustment of adults. Child Abuse Review, 9, 6–18
Johnson-Reid, M., Chung, S., Way, I., & Jolley, J. (2010). Understanding service use and victim patterns associated with re-reports of alleged maltreatment perpetrators. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 790–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.01.013
Kim, H., & Drake, B. (2018). Child maltreatment risk as a function of poverty and race/ethnicity in the USA. International Journal of Epidemiology, 47, 780–787. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyx280
Kendall, S., Lighton, S., Sherwood, J., Baldry, E., & Sullivan, E. A. (2020). Incarcerated Aboriginal women’s experiences of accessing healthcare and the limitations of the ‘equal treatment’ principle. International Journal of Equity in Health, 19, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-1155-3
Lee, B. J., & George, R. M. (1999). Poverty, early childbearing, and child maltreatment: A multinomial analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 21, 755–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/S019-7409(99)00053-5
Levin, K. A. (2006). Study design III: Cross-sectional studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry, 7, 24–25. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ebd.6400375
McVeigh, A. (2013). Self-determination and Queensland’s child protection system: The over-representation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children. Alternative Law Journal, 38, 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1037969X1303800106
Merksy, J. P., Berger, L. M., Reynolds, A. J., & Gromoske, A. (2009). Risk factors for child and adolescent maltreatment: A longitudinal investigation of a cohort of inner-city youth. Child Maltreatment, 14, 73–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559508318399
Munro, E., Taylor, J. S., & Bradbury-Jones, C. (2014). Understanding the causal pathways to child maltreatment: Implications for health and social care policy and practice. Child Abuse Review, 23, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2266
O’Donnell, M., Scott, D., & Stanley, F. (2008). Child abuse and neglect—is it time for a public health approach? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 32, 325–330. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-6405.2008.00249.x
Olds, D. L. (2006). The nurse-family partnership: An evidence-based preventive intervention. Infant Mental Health Journal, 27, 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20077
Ozyurt, G., Dinsever, C., Caliskan, Z., & Evgin, D. (2018). Can positive parenting program (Triple P) be useful to prevent child maltreatment? Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60, 286–291. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_92_17
Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Allen & Unwin
Pickering, J. A., & Sanders, M. R. (2016). Reducing child maltreatment by making parenting programs available to all parents: A case example using the Triple P-positive parenting program. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17, 398–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016658876
Piquero, A. R. (2008). Taking stock of developmental trajectories of criminal activity over the life course. In A. M. Liberman (Ed.), The long view of crime: A synthesis of longitudinal research (pp. 23–78). Springer
Ridings, L. E., Beasley, L. O., & Silovsky, J. F. (2017). Consideration of risk and protective factors for families at risk of child maltreatment: An intervention approach. Journal of Family Violence, 32, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9826-y
Sanders, M. R. (2008). Triple P-positive parenting program as a public health approach to strengthening parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 506–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.506
Santelli, J. S., Warren, C. W., Lowry, R., Sogolow, E., Collins, J., Kann, L., Kaufmann, R. B., & Celentano, D. D. (1997). The use of condoms with other contraceptive methods among young men and women. Family Planning Perspectives, 29, 261–267
Scannapieco, M., & Connell-Carrick, K. (2016). Correlates of child maltreatment among adolescent mothers with young children. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 13, 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15433714.2014.992696
Sedgwick, P. (2014). Retrospective cohort studies: Advantages and disadvantages. British Medical Journal, 348, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g1072
Sedlak, A. J., Mettenburg, J., Basena, M., Petta, I., McPherson, K., Greene, A., & Li, S. (2010). Fourth national incidence study of child abuse and neglect: Report to congress. United States Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families
Sieving, R., Bearinger, L. H., Resnick, M. D., Pettingell, S., & Skay, C. (2007). Adolescent dual method use: Relevant attitudes, normative beliefs and self-efficacy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.003
Shaffer, A., Huston, L., & Egeland, B. (2008). Identification of child maltreatment using prospective and self-report methodologies: A comparison of maltreatment incidence and relation to later psychopathology. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 682–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.09.010
Sullivan, E. A., Kendall, S., Chang, S., Baldry, E., Zeki, R., Gilles, M., Wilson, M., Butler, T., Levy, M., Wayland, S., Cullen, P., Jones, J., & Sherwood, J. (2019). Aboriginal mothers in prison in Australia: A study of social, emotional and physical wellbeing. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 43, 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12892
Tanner-Smith, E. E., Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2013). Risk factors and crime. In F. T. Cullen & P. Wilcox (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of criminological theory (pp. 89–111). Oxford University Press
Thornberry, T. P., & Henry, K. L. (2013). Intergenerational continuity in maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 555–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9697-5
Thornberry, T. P., Matsuda, M., Greenman, S. J., Augustyn, M. B., Henry, K. L., Smith, C. A., & Ireland, T. O. (2014). Adolescent risk factors for child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 706–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.08.009
Townsley, R. (2016). ESRC longitudinal studies review 2017. https://esrc.ukri.org/files/news-events-and-publications/publications/longitudinal-studies-review-analysis-of-public-consultation-responses/
Turner, S., Menzies, C., Fortier, J., Garces, I., Struck, S., Taillieu, T., & Afifi, T. O. (2020). Child maltreatment and sleep problems among adolescents in Ontario: A cross-sectional study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 99, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104309
Way, I., Chung, S., Johnson-Reid, M., & Drake, B. (2001). Maltreatment perpetrators: A 54-month analysis of recidivism. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1093–1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00258-7
Wilkins, D. (2012). Disorganised attachment indicates child maltreatment: How is this link useful for child protection social workers? Journal of Social Work Practice, 26, 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650533.2011.598228
Williams, J., Toumbourou, J. W., McDonald, M., Jones, S., & Moore, T. (2005). A sea change on the island continent: Frameworks for risk assessment, prevention and intervention in child health in Australia. Children & Society, 19, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/chi.869
Wilson, M., Jones, J., Butler, T., Simpson, P., Gilles, M., Baldry, E., Levy, M., & Sullivan, E. (2017). Violence in the lives of incarcerated Aboriginal mothers in Western Australia. SAGE Open, 7, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016686814
Windham, A. M., Rosenberg, L., Fuddy, L., McFarlane, E., Sia, C., & Duggan, A. K. (2004). Risk of mother-reported child abuse in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 645–667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.003
Zuravin, S. J. (1991). Unplanned childbearing and family size: Their relationship to child neglect and abuse. Family Planning Perspectives, 23, 155–161. https://doi.org/10.2307/2135738
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Queensland Department of Child Safety, Youth and Women and the Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages who provided the data for this project; and the Queensland Government Statistician’s Office for linking the data. The authors gratefully acknowledge use of the services and facilities of the Griffith Criminology Institute’s Social Analytics Lab at Griffith University.
Funding
The research leading to these results (creation of the QCRC linked database) received funding from the Australian Research Council grant no. LP100200469. The industry partners on this grant were Queensland Health, Department of Premier and Cabinet, Office of Economic and Statistical Research (Queensland Treasury), Department of Communities, Queensland Police Service and Department of Justice and Attorney General.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical Approval
The research was approved by the Griffith University Human Research Ethics Committee 2019/020. The research relied on previously collected deidentified administrative data and clearance was provided to undertake the study.
Informed Consent
The data held by the authors are de-identified only and are stored under the Data Transfer and Use Agreement between Griffith University and The State of Queensland Acting through Queensland Treasury in the Social Analytics Lab, a secure data facility at Griffith University.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kuluk, A., Allard, T. & Stewart, A. Understanding Risk and Protective Factors for Maternal Maltreatment: A Population-Based Comparative Analysis. J Child Fam Stud 30, 2744–2755 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02017-y
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02017-y