Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Executive Function Mechanisms of Theory of Mind

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between Executive Function (EF) and Theory of Mind (ToM) using the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) and three tests of ToM (Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET), Strange Stories test, and Faux Pas test). Separate regression analyses were conducted, and EF predictors varied by ToM test. No EF domains accounted for significant variance in RMET scores; only estimated IQ scores were significant predictors of RMET performance. Verbal fluency and deductive reasoning were significant predictors of performance on the Strange Stories test, while verbal fluency, problem solving, and gender accounted for a significant variance in the Faux Pas test. Results suggest that the ToM tests each utilized differing cognitive mechanisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed, F., Miller, L. S., & Abner, L. (2007). Assessment of theory of mind: Variance among measures. Presented at the thirty-fifth annual meeting of the international neuropsychology society, Portland, OR. Abstract: (published online by Cambridge University Press, 3/8/2007), Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, S1, 30. doi:10.1017/S1355617707079970.

  • Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8, 71–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, V., Levin, H. S., & Jocobs, R. (2002). Executive functions after frontal lobe injury: A developmental perspective. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 1–7).

  • Apperly, I. A., Samson, D., & Humphreys, G. W. (2009). Studies of adults can inform accounts of theory of mind development. Developmental Psychology, 45, 190–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bach, L. J., Happé, F., Fleminger, S., & Powell, J. (2005). Theory of mind: Independence of executive function and the role of the frontal cortex in acquired brain injury. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 5, 175–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (1988). Social and pragmatic deficits in autism: Cognitive or affective? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 379–402.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Jolliffe, T., Mortimore, C., & Robertson, M. (1997). Another advanced test of theory of mind: Evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 813–822.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., O’Riordan, M., Stone, V., Jones, R., & Plaisted, K. (1999). Recognition of faux pas by normally developing children and children with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 407–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004). The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 163–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001). The “reading the mind in the eyes” test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 241–251.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bora, E., Vahip, S., Gonul, A. S., Akdeniz, F., Alkan, M., Ogut, M., et al. (2005). Evidence for theory of mind deficits in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 112, 110–116.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brent, E., Rios, P., Happé, F., & Charman, T. (2004). Performance of children with autism spectrum disorder on advanced theory of mind tasks. Autism, 8, 283–299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brüne, M., & Brüne-Cohrs, U. (2005). Theory of mind-evolution, ontogeny, brain mechanisms and psychopathology. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, xx, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R., Phillips, L. H., & Conway, C. A. (2008). The role of control functions in mentalizing dual-task conditions of theory of mind and executive function. Cognition, 107, 663–672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S. M., Mandell, D. J., & Williams, L. (2004a). Executive function and theory of mind: Stability and prediction from ages 2 to 3. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1105–1122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11, 73–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004b). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 299–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, K., & Mitchell, P. (2000). Siblings in the development of executive control and a theory of mind. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 279–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cuerva, A. G., Sabe, L., Kuzis, G., Tiberti, C., Dorrego, F., & Starkstein, S. E. (2001). Theory of mind and pragmatic abilities in dementia. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, & Behavioral Neurology, 14, 153–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J. H. (2001). Delis Kaplan executive function system examiner’s manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahie, C. M., & Symons, D. K. (2003). Executive functioning and theory of mind in children clinically referred for attention and behavior problems. Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 51–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fine, C., Lumsden, J., & Blair, R. J. R. (2001). Dissociation between ‘theory of mind’ and executive functions in a patient with early left amygdala damage. Brain, 124, 287–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996). Structured clinical interview for Axis I DSM-IV disorders—Patient Edition (with psychotic screening) SCID-I/P (W/psychotic screen) (version 2). New York, New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.

  • Fisher, N., & Happé, F. (2005). A training study of theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 757–771.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, A. C. L., & Olson, D. R. (1998). The relation between acquisition of a theory of mind and the capacity to hold in mind. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 68, 70–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, D. (2005). The strange stories test: A replication of children and adolescents with asperger syndrome. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 73–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, C., Lough, S., Stone, V., Erzinclioglu, S., Martin, L., Baron-Cohen, S., et al. (2002). Theory of mind in patients with frontal variant frontotemporal dementia and alzheimer’s disease: Theoretical and practical implications. Brain, 125, 752–764.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F. G. (1994). An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters’ thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 129–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F. G. E., Winner, E., & Brownell, H. (1998). The getting of wisdom: Theory of mind in old age. Developmental Psychology, 34, 358–362.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homack, S., Lee, D., & Riccio, C. A. (2005). Test review: Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 27, 599–609.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C. (1998). Finding your marbles: Does preschoolers’ strategic behavior predict later understanding of mind? Developmental Psychology, 34, 1326–1339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Dunn, J., & White, A. (1998). Trick or treat?: Uneven understanding of mind and emotion and executive dysfunction in “hard to manage” preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 981–994.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Graham, A. (2002). Measuring executive functions in childhood: Problems and solutions? Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 7, 131–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). The strange stories test: A replication with high-functioning adults with autism or asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29, 395–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, R. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2004). The relationship of theory of mind and executive functions to symptom type and severity in children with autism. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 137–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaland, N., Moller-Nielsen, A., Callesen, K., Mortensen, E. L., Gottlieb, D., & Smith, L. (2002). A new ‘advanced’ test of theory of mind: Evidence from children and adolescents with asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 517–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, N., Dunbar, R. I. M., & Bentall, R. P. (2003). Theory of mind deficits in bipolar affective disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 73, 253–259.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., & Loring, D. W. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maylor, E., Moulson, J. M., Muncer, A., & Taylor, L. A. (2002). Does performance of theory of mind tasks decline in old age? British Journal of Psychology, 93, 465–485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKinnon, M. C., & Moscovitch, M. (2007). Domain-general contributions to social reasoning: Theory of mind and deontic reasoning re-explored. Cognition, 102, 179–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merten, T., Green, P., Henry, M., Blaskewitz, N., & Brockhaus, R. (2005). Analog validation of german-language symptom validity tests and the influence of coaching. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. A. (2001). The development and neural bases of face recognition. Infant and Child Development, 10, 3–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1081–1105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., & Lang, B. (1999). Development of theory of mind and executive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 337–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Richman, J., Green, P., Gervais, R., Flaro, L., Merten, T., Brockhaus, T., et al. (2006). Objective tests of symptom exaggeration in independent medical examinations. Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine, 48, 303–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Royall, D. R., Lauterbach, E. C., Cummings, J. L., Reeve, A., Rummans, T. A., Kaufer, D. I., et al. (2002). Executive control function: A review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14, 377–405.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabbagh, M. A., Xu, F., Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Lee, K. (2006). The development of executive functioning and theory of mind: A comparison of chinese and U.S. preschoolers. Psychological Science, 17, 74–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saltzman, J., Strauss, E., Hunter, M., & Archibald, S. (2000). Theory of mind and executive functions in normal aging and parkinson’s disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 781–788.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarfati, Y., Hardy-Baylé, M. C., Besche, C., & Widlöcher, D. (1997). Attribution of intentions to others in people with schizophrenia: A non-verbal exploration with comic strips. Schizophrenia Research, 25, 199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, P., Lawrence, E. J., Radbourne, C., Bramham, J., Polkey, C. E., & David, A. S. (2004). The impact of early and late damage to the human amygdale on ‘theory of mind’ reasoning. Brain, 127, 1535–1548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, V. E., Baron-Cohen, S., & Knight, R. T. (1998). Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 640–656.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuss, D. T., & Knight, R. T. (2002). Introduction. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 1–7). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, S., & Ruffman, T. (2004). Social understanding: How does it fare with advancing years? British Journal of Psychology, 95, 1–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Psychological Corporation. (1996). Beck depression inventory-second edition manual. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Psychological Corporation. (2001). Wechsler test of adult reading. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 41–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yirmiya, N., Erel, O., Shaked, M., & Solomonica-Levi, D. (1998). Meta-analyses comparing theory of mind abilities of individuals with autism, individuals with mental retardation, and normally developing individuals. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 283–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P. D., & Frye, D. (1998). Cognitive complexity and control ii. The development of executive function in childhood. American Psychological Society, 7, 121–125.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Francesca Happé and Anita Marsden for their permission and provision of the Strange Stories test as well as Simon Baron-Cohen and the Autism Research Centre for allowing the use of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes and the Faux Pas tests. Finally, we thank LaShonda Abner, Cami Godsey, Amy Kasian, and Gemma Patel for their help in the data collection process.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, 30602, USA

    Fayeza S. Ahmed & L. Stephen Miller

Authors
  1. Fayeza S. Ahmed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. L. Stephen Miller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fayeza S. Ahmed.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ahmed, F.S., Stephen Miller, L. Executive Function Mechanisms of Theory of Mind. J Autism Dev Disord 41, 667–678 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1087-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1087-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation