Abstract
This investigation examined vagal modulation of arousal, as indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), as a moderator of the covariance between interpretation biases and anxiety disorder symptom severity in a diverse sample of clinically anxious youth. A sample of 105 children with anxiety disorders (Mage = 10.07 years, SD = 1.22; range = 8–12 years; 57.1% female; 61.9% ethnic minority) and their mothers completed a battery of measures assessing interpretation biases and anxiety disorder symptom severity. Children also completed a behaviorally-indexed assessment of interpretation biases and participated in an anxiety-provoking speech task. Physiological assessment of RSA was collected at baseline (i.e., baseline RSA) and during the speech task (i.e., challenge RSA). The interaction between challenge RSA and both self-reported and behaviorally-indexed interpretation biases (adjusting for baseline RSA) was significant (ΔR2 = .05 and .04 respectively) in relation to maternal report of child anxiety symptoms. Specifically, among children with low (vs. high) challenge RSA, greater self-reported interpretation biases were significantly associated with maternal report of more severe child anxiety symptoms, and greater behaviorally-indexed interpretation biases were marginally associated with maternal report of more severe child anxiety. Interactions predicting child self-report of anxiety symptoms were not significant. Greater child interpretation biases coupled with lower challenge RSA were associated with maternal report of more severe child anxiety symptoms. Future work should examine whether interventions targeting RSA weaken the association between interpretation biases and anxiety symptoms in youth.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Given the absence of empirical data that show that interpretation biases directly alter physiological responses, as well as prior work suggesting that RSA may moderate—rather than mediate—the relationship between interpretation biases and child anxiety symptom severity (Buss et al. 2018; Viana et al. 2017), RSA mediation of interpretation biases-child anxiety associations was not examined.
Regression analyses reported in Table 2 were also conducted with baseline RSA and RSA suppression (i.e., the difference between baseline RSA and challenge RSA), respectively, as moderators. Baseline RSA significantly moderated the association between interpretation biases and maternal report of child anxiety (B = −0.08, SE = 0.04, t [100] = −2.01, 95% CI [−0.16, −0.001]; ΔR2 = .04, F [1, 100] = 4.06, p = .047), but not child self-reported anxiety (p = .757). RSA suppression did not moderate the associations between interpretation biases and either maternal report of or child self-reported child anxiety (ps = .732 and .126, respectively).
Regression analyses reported in Table 3 were also conducted with baseline RSA and RSA suppression (i.e., the difference between baseline RSA and challenge RSA), respectively, as moderators. Baseline RSA significantly moderated the association between interpretation biases and maternal report of child anxiety (B = −8.76, SE = 4.14, t [100] = −2.12, 95% CI [−16.98, −0.55]; ΔR2 = .04, F [1, 100] = 4.48, p = .037), but not child self-reported anxiety (p = .787). RSA suppression did not moderate the associations between interpretation biases and either maternal report or child self-reported child anxiety (ps = .892 and .227, respectively).
One-way ANOVAs revealed statistically significant differences among three study variables as a function of child diagnosis source (i.e., mother-and-child, mother-only, child-only), namely: self-reported interpretation biases (F [2, 102] = 4.46, p = .014), child self-reported anxiety (F [2, 102] = 11.33, p < .001), and maternal report of child anxiety (F [2, 102] = 5.83, p = .004). Tukey HSD post-hoc comparisons revealed that children with diagnoses sourced by both child and mother self-reported the greatest interpretation biases; children with diagnoses sourced by the mother-only self-reported the least severe anxiety; and children with diagnoses sourced by child-only had the least severe maternal reports of child anxiety. As a result, moderation analyses reported in Tables 2 and 3 were also conducted controlling for the source of the child’s anxiety disorder diagnosis. Results were very similar (i.e., the same pattern of results, including the graphs of the moderation analyses, was obtained); however, simple slopes analyses at −1 SD of challenge RSA did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance in the model examining behaviorally-indexed interpretation biases in relation to maternal report of child anxiety, most likely because of the corresponding reduction in statistical power with the inclusion of one additional covariate. We thank an anonymous reviewer for suggesting these additional analyses.
References
Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C. T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 213–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.213.
Adrian, M., Zeman, J. L., & Veits, G. (2011). Methodological implications of the affect revolution: A 35-year review of emotion regulation assessment in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110(2), 171–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2011.03.009.
Aldao, A. (2013). The future of emotion regulation research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612459518.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlingon, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Antony, M. M., Bieling, P. J., Enns, M. W., & Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and the 21-item version of the DASS in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10(2), 176–181.
Beard, C. (2011). Cognitive bias modification for anxiety: Current evidence and future directions. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 11(2), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.10.194.
Beard, C., & Amir, N. (2009). Interpretation in social anxiety: When meaning precedes ambiguity. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(4), 406–415.
Beauchaine, T. P. (2015). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: A transdiagnostic biomarker of emotion dysregulation and psychopathology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3(509), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.017.
Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1988). Anxiety and depression: An information processing perspective. Anxiety Research, 1(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615808808248218.
Burstein, M., Ginsburg, G. S., & Tein, J. Y. (2010). Parental anxiety and child symptomatology: An examination of additive and interactive effects of parent psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 897–909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9415-0.
Buss, K. A., Davis, E. L., Ram, N., & Coccia, M. (2018). Dysregulated fear, social inhibition, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia: A replication and extension. Child Development, 89(3), e214–e228. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12774.
Calkins, S. D., Graziano, P. A., & Keane, S. P. (2007). Cardiac vagal regulation differentiates among children at risk for behavior problems. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.09.005.Cardiac.
Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2004). Cardiac vagal regulation across the preschool period: Stability, continuity, and implications for childhood adjustment. Developmental Psychobiology, 45(3), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20020.
Camm, A. J. M. M., Malik, M., Bigger, J. T. G. B., Breithardt, G., Cerutti, S., Cohen, R., et al. (1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. European Heart Journal, 17(3), 354–381.
Cannon, M. F., & Weems, C. F. (2010). Cognitive biases in childhood anxiety disorders: Do interpretive and judgment biases distinguish anxious youth from their non-anxious peers? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(7), 751–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.05.008.
Carthy, T., Horesh, N., Apter, A., Edge, M. D., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(5), 384–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013.
Chorpita, B. F., Moffitt, C. E., & Gray, J. (2005). Psychometric properties of the revised child anxiety and depression scale in a clinical sample. Behavior Research and Therapy, 43, 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1080/24750573.2017.1297494.
Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C. E., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(8), 835–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00130-8.
Creswell, C., Shildrick, S., & Field, A. P. (2011). Interpretation of ambiguity in children: A prospective study of associations with anxiety and parental interpretations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(2), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9390-7.
Dadds, M. R., Perrin, S., & Yule, W. (1998). Social desirability and self-reported anxiety in children: An analysis of the RCMAS lie scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(4), 311–317. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022610702439.
De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 483–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.483.
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 355–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355.
Dodd, H. F., Hudson, J. L., Morris, T. M., & Wise, C. K. (2012). Interpretation bias in preschool children at risk for anxiety: A prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024589.
Doom, J. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). Stress physiology and developmental psychopathology: Past, present, and future. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1359–1373. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000667.
El-Sheikh, M., Arsiwalla, D. D., Hinnant, J. B., & Erath, S. A. (2011). Children’s internalizing symptoms: The role of interactions between cortisol and respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Physiological Behavior, 103(2), 225–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.02.004.
Eysenck, M. W. (2000). A cognitive approach to trait anxiety. European Journal of Personality, 14(5), 463–476.
Field, A. P., Cartwright-Hatton, S., Reynolds, S., & Creswell, C. (2008). Future directions for child anxiety theory and treatment. Cognition and Emotion, 22(3), 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701842270.
Ginsburg, G. S., Becker-Haimes, E. M., Keeton, C., Kendall, P. C., Iyengar, S., Sakolsky, D., Albano, A. M., Peris, T., Compton, S. N., & Piacentini, J. (2018). Results from the child/adolescent anxiety multimodal extended long-term study (CAMELS): Primary anxiety outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(7), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.03.017.
Gonsalves, M., Whittles, R. L., Weisberg, R. B., & Beard, C. (2019). A systematic review of the word sentence association paradigm (WSAP). Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 64, 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.04.003.
Graziano, P. A., & Derefinko, K. (2013). Cardiac vagal control and children’s adaptive functioning: A meta-analysis. Biological Psychology, 94(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.04.011.
Graziano, P. A., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D. (2007). Cardiac vagal regulation and early peer status. Child Development, 78(1), 264–278.
Greaves-Lord, K., Tulen, J., Dietrich, A., Sondeijker, F., van Roon, A., Oldehinkel, A., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F., & Huizink, A. (2010). Reduced autonomic flexibility as a predictor for future anxiety in girls from the general population: The TRAILS study. Psychiatry Research, 179(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2009.04.014.
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(7), 953–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.010.
Hannesdottir, D. K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in the treatment of child anxiety disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 275–293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-007-0024-6.
Hastings, P. D., Kahle, S., & Nuselovici, J. M. (2014). How well socially wary preschoolers fare over time depends on their parasympathetic regulation and socialization. Child Development, 85(4), 1586–1600. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12228.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analyses: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hayes, A. F., & Cai, L. (2007). Using heteroskedasticity-consistent standard error estimators in OLS regression: An introduction and software implementation. Behavior Research Methods, 39(4), 709–722.
Henderson, H. A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2015). Behavioral inhibition and developmental risk: A dual processing perspective. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(1), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.189.
Hessler, D. M., & Katz, L. F. (2007). Children’s emotion regulation: Self-report and physiological response to peer provocation. Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.27.
Hinnant, J. B., Elmore-Staton, L., & El-Sheikh, M. (2011). Developmental trajectories of respiratory sinus arrhythmia and preejection period in middle childhood. Developmental Psychobiology, 53(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.20487.
Hinnant, J. B., & El-Sheikh, M. (2009). Children’s externalizing and internalizing symptoms over time: The role of individual differences in patterns of RSA responding. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(8), 1049–1061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-009-9341-1.
Hirsch, C. R., Meeten, F., Krahé, C., & Reeder, C. (2016). Resolving ambiguity in emotional disorders: The nature and role of interpretation biases. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12, 281–305. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093436.
Holmbeck, G. N. (2002). Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 27(1), 87–96.
Huges, E. K., & Gullone, E. (2010). Discrepancies between adolescent, mother, and father reports of adoelscent internalizing symptom levels and their association with parent symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66(9), 978–995. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20695.
Jarvis, B. G. (2012). DirectRT [computer software]. New York, NY: Empirisoft Corporation.
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 51(6), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.x.
Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The “Trier social stress test” - a tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28(1–2), 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000119004.
Klein, A. M., Flokstra, E., van Niekerk, R., Klein, S., Rapee, R. M., Hudson, J. L., Bögels, S. M., Becker, E. S., & Rinck, M. (2018). The role of self-reports and behavioral measures of interpretation biases in children with varying levels of anxiety. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 49(6), 897–905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0804-x.
Ladouceur, C. D., Dahl, R. E., Williamson, D. E., Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., & Casey, B. J. (2005). Altered emotional processing in pediatric anxiety, depression, and comorbid anxiety-depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-1825-z.
Leitenberg, H., Yost, L. W., & Carroll-Wilson, M. (1986). Negative cognitive errors in children: Questionnaire development, normative data, and comparisons between children with and without self-reported symptoms of depression, low self-esteem, and evaluation anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 528–536. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.54.4.528.
Lewis, G. F., Furman, S. A., McCool, M. F., & Porges, S. W. (2012). Statistical strategies to quantify respiratory sinus arrhythmia: Are commonly used metrics equivalent? Biological Psychology, 89(2), 349–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.11.009.
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343.
Macleod, C., & Mathews, A. (2012). Cognitive bias modification approaches to anxiety. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 189–217. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143052.
Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B. (2000). Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(4), 602–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.602.
Merikangas, K., Jian-ping, H., Burstein, M., Swanson, S., Avenevoli, S., Lihong, C., et al. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Study-Adolescent Supplement. Journal of the American Academy Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017.
Mikosch, P., Hadrawa, T., Laubreiter, K., Brandl, J., Pilz, J., Stettner, H., & Grimm, G. (2010). Effectiveness of respiratory-sinus-arrhythmia biofeedback on state-anxiety in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66(5), 1101–1110. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05277.x.
Muris, P. (2010). Anxiety-related reasoning biases in children and adolescents. In J. A. Hadwin & A. P. Field (Eds.), Information processing biases and anxiety: A developmental perspective (pp. 21–46). West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.
Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81(1), 270–289.
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2006.10.010.
Rozenman, M., Amir, N., & Weersing, V. R. (2014). Performance-based interpretation bias in clinically anxious youths: Relationships with attention, anxiety, and negative cognition. Behavior Therapy, 45(5), 594–605.
Rozenman, M., Vreeland, A., Iglesias, M., Mendez, M., & Piacentini, J. (2018). The tell-tale heart: Physiological reactivity during resolution of ambiguity in youth anxiety. Cognition and Emotion, 32(2), 389–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1289152.
Rozenman, M., Vreeland, A., & Piacentini, J. (2017). Thinking anxious, feeling anxious, or both? Cognitive bias moderates the relationship between anxiety disorder status and sympathetic arousal in youth. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 45, 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.11.004.
Salemink, E., van den Hout, M., & Kindt, M. (2007). Trained interpretive bias: Validity and effects on anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38(2), 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.010.
Sheehan, D. V., Lecrubier, Y., Sheehan, H., Amorim, P., Janavs, J., Weiller, E., et al. (1998). The Mini-international neuropsychiatric interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(suppl 20), 22–33.
Sheehan, D. V., Sheehan, K. H., Shytle, R. D., Janavs, J., Bannon, Y., Rogers, J. E., Milo, K. M., Stock, S. L., & Wilkinson, B. (2010). Reliability and validity of the Mini international neuropsychiatric interview for children and adolescents (MINI-KID). Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(3), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.09m05305whi.
Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Forbes, E. E., Lane, T. L., & Kovacs, M. (2010). Maternal depression and child internalizing: The moderating role of child emotion regulation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35(1), 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3501_10.
Sinclair, S. J., Siefert, C. J., Slavin-Mulford, J. M., Stein, M. B., Renna, M., & Blais, M. A. (2012). Psychometric evaluation and normative data for the depression, anxiety, and stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) in a nonclinical sample of U.S. adults. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 35(3), 259–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278711424282.
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0178059.
Suveg, C., Kendall, P. C., Comer, J. S., & Robin, J. (2006). Emotion-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxious youth: A multiple-baseline evaluation. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 36(2), 77–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-006-9010-4.
Suveg, C., & Zeman, J. L. (2004). Emotion regulation in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3304.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Taghavi, M. R., Moradi, A. R., Neshat-Doost, H. T., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2000). Interpretation of ambiguous emotional information in clinically anxious children and adolescents. Cognition and Emotion, 14(6), 809–822. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930050156645.
Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61(3), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00338-4.
Thompson, R. A. (2001). Childhood anxiety disorders from the perspective of emotion regulation and attachment. In M. W. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (pp. 160–182). New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780195123630.003.0008.
Trent, E. S., Viana, A. G., Raines, E. M., Woodward, E. C., Storch, E. A., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2019). Parental threats and adolescent depression: The role of emotion dysregulation. Psychiatry Research, 276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.04.009.
Treutler, C. M., & Epkins, C. C. (2003). Are discrepancies among child, mother, and father reports on children’s behavior related to parents’ psychological symptoms and aspects of parent-child relationships? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(1), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021765114434.
Vasilev, C. A., Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., Mead, H. K., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. (2009). Correspondence between physiological and self-report measures of emotion dysregulation: A longitudinal investigation of youth with and without psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(11), 1357–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02172.x.
Viana, A. G., Palmer, C. A., Zvolensky, M. J., Alfano, C. A., Dixon, L. J., & Raines, E. M. (2017). Children’s behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorder symptom severity: The role of individual differences in respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 93, 38–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.03.012.
Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler individual achievement test (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
Funding
This research was funded by grant R21-MH101309 (PI: Viana) from the National Institute of Mental Health (NCT02095340).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest
Eric Storch has received funding from the National Institute of Health, Red Cross, the Rebuild Texas Fund, and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, and book royalties from Elsevier, Wiley, Springer, Oxford University Press, and the American Psychological Association, and has consulted for Levo Therapeutics. The remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee (Institutional Review Board at the University of Houston) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Parental and adolescent informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliation.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Trent, E.S., Viana, A.G., Raines, E.M. et al. Interpretation Biases and Childhood Anxiety: The Moderating Role of Parasympathetic Nervous System Reactivity. J Abnorm Child Psychol 48, 419–433 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00605-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00605-7