Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sludge Reduction by Predatory Activity of Aquatic Oligochaetes in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Science or Fiction? A Review

  • Published:
Hydrobiologia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Biological aerobic wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) produce a lot of excess sludge. The costs for handling this residual product are increasing, so the search for alternative techniques to reduce the amount of sludge has to be continued. Activated sludge consists of inorganic and organic substances, bacteria, protozoa and metazoa. Due to incomplete biomass conversion, sludge consumption yields less oligochaete biomass. From a technological point of view, the application of aquatic oligochaetes to reduce the sludge production offers interesting perspectives. This paper aims to review the feasibility for the reduction of activated sludge in WWTPs by means of aquatic oligochaetes. Also the current techniques concerning sludge reduction are taken into account. Several of the WWTPs relevant parameters, which may influence predatory activity of aquatic oligochaetes, are discussed: particle size, organic content of substrate, bacteria preference, life cycle and population dynamics of aquatic oligochaetes, temperature, pH, oxygen and process conditions. From the literature it appeared that most research has been performed on laboratory scale. Only a few authors mention a significant reduction of the sludge production by ‘sessile’ species such as Lumbriculus. Vermicultures for the reduction of activated sludge are rather common in developing countries. Incidentally large annelid blooms have been noticed in WWTPs. It remains obscure which factors trigger the initiation of annelid blooms in WWTPs and which are of importance to maintain a stable annelid population in WWTPs. The influence of a considerable worm bloom on the waste sludge production is still under investigation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • B. Abbassi S. Dullstein N. Räbiger (1999) ArticleTitleMinimization of excess sludge production by increase of oxygen concentration in activated sludge flocs; experimental and theoretical approach Water Research 34 139–146 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0043-1354(99)00108-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L. Adreani C. Bonacina G. Bonomi C. Monti (1984) ArticleTitleCohort cultures of Psammoryctides barbatus (Grube) and Spirosperma ferox Eisen: a tool for a better understanding of demographic strategies in Tubificidae Hydrobiologia 115 113–119 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027904

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. J. Aston (1968) ArticleTitleThe effect of temperature on the life cycle, growth and fecundity of Branchiua sowerbyi (Oligochaeta: Tubificidae) Journal of Zoology 154 29–40 Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1469-7998.1968.tb05038.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. J. Aston A. G. P. Milner (1982) ArticleTitleConditions required for the culture of Branchiura sowerbyi (Oligochaeta: Tubificidae) in activated sludge Aquaculture 26 155–160 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0044-8486(81)90118-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. J. Aston K. Sadler A. G. P. Milner (1982) ArticleTitleThe effects of temperature on the culture of Branchiura sowerbyi (Oligochaeta, Tubificidae) on activated sludge Aquaculture 29 137–145 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0044-8486(82)90040-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • N. Athanasopouluos (1993) ArticleTitleUse of earthworm biotechnology for the management of anaerobically stabilized effluents of dried vine fruit industry Biotechnology letters 15 1281–1286

    Google Scholar 

  • C. Bonacina G. Bonomi C. Monti (1989a) ArticleTitlePopulation analysis in mass cultures of Tubifex tubifex Hydrobiologia 180 127–134 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C. Bonacina G. Bonomi C. Monti (1989b) ArticleTitleDensity-dependent processes in cohorts of Tubifex tubifex, with special emphasis on the control of fecundity Hydrobiologia 180 135–141 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027546

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • V. Bouguenec (1992) ArticleTitleOligochaetes (Tubificidae and Enchytraeidae) as food in fish rearing: a review and preliminary tests Aquaculture 102 201–217 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0044-8486(92)90149-F

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D. W. Bowker M. T. Wareham M. A. Learner (1983) ArticleTitleThe selection and ingestion of epilithic algae by Nais elinguis (Oligochaeta: Naididae) Hydrobiologia 98 171–178 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF02185635

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D. W. Bowker M. T. Wareham M. A. Learner (1985a) ArticleTitleA choice chamber experiment on the selection of algae as food and substrate by (Oligochaeta: Naididae) Freshwater Biology 15 547–557

    Google Scholar 

  • D. W. Bowker M. T. Wareham M. A. Learner (1985b) ArticleTitleThe ingestion and assimilation of algae by Nais elinguis (Oligochaeta: Naididae) Oecologia 67 282–285 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00384300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. O. Brinkhurst K. E. Chua (1969) ArticleTitlePreliminary investigation of the exploitation of some potential nutritional resources by three sympatric tubificid oligochaetes Journal Fisheries Research Board of Canada 26 2659–2668

    Google Scholar 

  • R. O. Brinkhurst (1970) ArticleTitleDistribution and abundance of tubificid (Oligochaeta) species in Toronto Harbour, Lake Ontario Journal Fisheries Research Board of Canada 27 1961–1969

    Google Scholar 

  • Brinkhurst, R. O. & B. G. M. Jamieson (eds), 1971. Distribution and Ecology. From: Aquatic Oligochaeta of the World. Edinburgh, Oliver and Boyd, 122–147.

  • R. O. Brinkhurst K. E. Chua N. K. Kaushik (1972) ArticleTitleInterspecific interactions and selective feeding by tubificid oligochaetes Limnology and Oceanography 17 122–133

    Google Scholar 

  • R. O. Brinkhurst (1974) ArticleTitleFactors mediating interspecific aggregation of tubificid oligochaetes Journal Fisheries Research Board of Canada 31 460–462

    Google Scholar 

  • R. O. Brinkhurst M. J. Austin (1979) ArticleTitleAssimilation by aquatic Oligochaeta International Review of Hydrobiology 64 245–250

    Google Scholar 

  • L. M. Cammen (1982) ArticleTitleEffect of particle size on organic content and microbial abundance within four marine sediments Marine Ecology-Progress Series 9 273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • B. Christensen (1973) ArticleTitleDensity dependence of sexual reproduction in Enchytraeus bigeminus (Enchytraeidae) Oikos 24 287–294

    Google Scholar 

  • B. Christensen (1984) ArticleTitleAsexual propagation and reproductive strategies in aquatic Oligochaeta Hydrobiologia 115 91–95 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027898

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, P., 1997. Vermistabilisation as a viable rural works treatment technology. Technical report.

  • L. Cole R. D. Bardgett P. Ineson (2000) ArticleTitleEnchytraeid worms (Oligochaeta) enhance mineralization of carbon in organic upland soils European Journal of Soil Science 51 185–192 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1365-2389.2000.00297.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R. A. Coler H. B. Gunner B. M. Zuckermann (1968) ArticleTitleSelective feeding of tubificids on bacteria Nature 216 1143–1144

    Google Scholar 

  • K. W. Cummins G. H. Lauff (1968) ArticleTitleThe influence of substrate particle size on the microdistribution of stream benthos Hydrobiologia 34 145–181 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00141925

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • E. Dumnicka K. Pasternak (1978) ArticleTitleThe influence of physicochemical properties of water and bottom sediments in the River Nida on the distribution and numbers of Oligochaeta Acta Hydrobiologica 20 215–232 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE1MXkt1Kqsbs%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EC, 1991. Commission of European Communities, Survey of Sludge Production, Treatment, Quality and disposal in European Union, Report EC 3646.

  • C. Elvira M. Goicoechea L. Sampedro S. Mato R. Nogales (1996) ArticleTitleBioconversion of solid paper-pulp mill sludge by earthworms Bioresource Technology 57 173–177 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0960-8524(96)00065-X Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK28XntlKnsL8%3D

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • P. Famme K. Knudsent (1985) ArticleTitleAnoxic survival, growth and reproduction by the freshwater annelid, Tubifex sp., demonstrated using a new simple anoxic chemostat Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 81A 251–253

    Google Scholar 

  • N. P. Finogenova T. M. Lobasheva (1987) ArticleTitleGrowth of Tubifex tubifex Mueller (Oligochaeta, Tubificidae) under various trophic conditions International Review of Hydrobiology 72 709–726

    Google Scholar 

  • J. Hämmerling (1924) ArticleTitleDie ungeschlechtliche Fortplanzung und Regeneration bei Aeolosoma hemprichi Zoologische Jahrbucher-Abteilung für Allgemeine Zoologie und Physiologie der Tiere 41 581–656

    Google Scholar 

  • R. M. Harper J. C. Fry M. A. Learner (1981a) ArticleTitleA bacteriological investigation to elucidate the feeding biology of Nais variabilis (Oligochaeta: Naididae) Freshwater Biology 11 227–236

    Google Scholar 

  • R. M. Harper J. C. Fry M. A. Learner (1981b) ArticleTitleDigestion of bacteria by Nais variabilis (Oligochaeta) as established by autoradiography Oikos 36 211–218 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL3MXhslWgsLo%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • B. T. Hargrave (1976) The central role of invertebrate feces in sediment decomposition J. M. Anderson A. Macfadyen (Eds) The Role of Terrestrial and Aquatic Organisms in Decomposition Processes Blackwell Oxford 301–321

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Hartenstein D. L. Kaplan E.F Neuhauser (1984) ArticleTitleEarthworms and trickling filters Journal Water Pollution Control Federation 56 294–298 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaL2MXmt1Shtrg%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • H. A. Hawkes (1963) The Ecology of Wastewater Treatment Permagon Press London

    Google Scholar 

  • S. V. Inakollu A. Wanganeo (2002) ArticleTitleEnvironmental assessment of fishes grown in treated domestic sewage Journal of Environmental Systems 29 55–70 Occurrence Handle10.2190/MN0A-PUCU-28X3-H8HV

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Inamori R. Suzuki R. Sudo (1983) ArticleTitleMass culture of small aquatic oligochaeta Research Report from the National Institute for Environmental Studies 47 125–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Y. Inamori Y. Kuniyasu R. Sudo (1987) ArticleTitleRole of smaller metazoa in water purification and sludge reduction Japanese Journal of Water Treatment Biology 23 15–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Y. Inamori Y. Kuniyasu N. Hayashi H. Ohtake R. Sudo (1990) ArticleTitleMonoxenic and mixed cultures of the small metazoa Philodina erythrophthalma and Aeolosoma hemprichi isolated from a waste-water treatment process Applied Microbial Biotechnology 34 404–407 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK3MXosl2gtQ%3D%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen, P. M. J., W. H. Rulkens, J. H. Rensink, & H. F. van der Roest, 1998. The potential for metazoa in biological wastewater treatment. Water Quality International: 25–27.

  • J. Juget (1979) ArticleTitleLa texture granulometrique des sediments et le regime alimentaire des oligochètes limnicoles Hydrobiologia 65 145–154 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00017420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. Juget V. Goubier D. Barthélémy (1989) ArticleTitleIntrinsic and extrinsic variables controlling the productivity of asexual populations of Nais spp. (Naididae, Oligochaeta) Hydrobiologia 180 177–184 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027550

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. K. Juniper (1981) ArticleTitleStimulation of bacterial activity by a deposit feeder in two New Zealand intertidal inlets Bulletin of Marine Science 31 691–701

    Google Scholar 

  • D. L. Kaplan R. Hartenstein E. F. Newhauser (1980) ArticleTitleCoprophagic relations among the earthworms Eisena foetida, Eudrilus eugenia and Amynthae spp Pedobiologia 20 74–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, R. G., 1973. Growth of sole (Solea solea L.) on Enchytraeid womrd diets. International Council of Exploration of the sea. Fisheries Improvement Committee C. M. 197/E: 18.

  • R. G. Kirk B. R. Howell (1972) ArticleTitleGrowth rates and food conversion in young plaice fed on artificial diets Aquaculture 1 29–34 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0044-8486(72)90004-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klapwijk, A., V. Blom, C. H. Ratsak, B. R. Buijs & H. E. H. Elissen, 2000. Reduction of sludge production in an activated sludge system with the use of metazoa and other higher organisms. CREST Workshop on Integrated Water Quality Management – The 4th Japan-Netherlands Workshop, Hokkaido Kiroro Resort, Japan, 2000: 369–375.

  • Koot, A. C. J., 1980. Behandeling van afvalwater. Uitgeverij Waltman. Delft. ISBN 90 212 3172 7.

  • K. Kuniyasu N. Hayashi Y. Inamori R. Sudo (1997) ArticleTitleEffect of environmental factors on growth characteristics of oligochaeta Japanese Journal of Water Treatment Biology 33 207–214

    Google Scholar 

  • M. A. Learner (1972) ArticleTitleLaboratory studies on the life histories of four enchytraeid worms (Oligochaeta) which inhabit sewage percolating filters Annals of Applied Biology 70 251–266

    Google Scholar 

  • N. M. Lee (1996) Parameters affecting microorganisms and the process performance in biological wastewater treatment. Doctoral dissertation Department of biotechnology, Center for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund University Sweden

    Google Scholar 

  • G. Lochhead M. A. Learner (1983) ArticleTitleThe effect of temperature on asexual population growth of three species of Naididae (Oligochaeta) Hydrobiologia 98 107–112 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF02185627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. S. Loden (1981) ArticleTitleReproductive ecology of Naididae (Oligochaeta) Hydrobiologia 83 115–123 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF02187156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. C. M. Loosdrecht Particlevan M. Henze (1999) ArticleTitleMaintenance, endogenous respiration, lysis, decay and predation Water Science and Technology 39 107–117 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0273-1223(98)00780-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. R. Lopez J. S. Levinton (1987) ArticleTitleEcology of deposit feeding animals in marine sediments Quarterly Review of Biology 62 235–260 Occurrence Handle10.1086/415511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M Lotzof (1999) ArticleTitleThe wonder of worms for sludge stabilisation Journal Australian Water and Wastewater Association 26 38–42 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXpsFWhtg%3D%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • G. Matisoff X. S. Wang P. L. McCall (1999) ArticleTitleBiological redistribution of lake sediments by tubificid oligochaetes: Branchiura sowerbyi and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri/Tubifex tubifex Journal of Great Lakes Research 25 205–219 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0380-1330(99)70729-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. Mayhew T. Stephenson (1997) ArticleTitleLow biomass yield activated sludge: a review Environmental Technology 18 883–892 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXntFyrsLo%3D

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • F. Mermillod-Blondin M. Creuzé des Châtelliers M. Gérino (2003) ArticleTitleEffects of the interaction between tubificid worms on the functioning of hyporheic sediments: an experimental study in sediment columns Archiv für Hydrobiology 156 203–223 Occurrence Handle10.1127/0003-9136/2003/0156-0203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. Milbrink (1987) ArticleTitleMutualistic relationships between cohabiting tubificid species Hydrobiologia 155 193 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00025650

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • G. Milbrink (1993) ArticleTitleEvidence for mutualistic interactions in freshwater oligochaete communities Oikos 68 317–322

    Google Scholar 

  • M. J. McMurtry D. J. Rapport K. E. Chua (1983) ArticleTitleSubstrate selection by tubificid oligochaetes Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 40 1639–1646

    Google Scholar 

  • Ødegaard, H., 2003. Sludge minimization technologies – an overview, 2003. Proceedings of the International Water Association Specialist Conference. Biosolids 2003. Wastewater Sludge as a Resource, 23–25 June, 2003. Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

  • A. Pasteris C. Bonacina G. Bonomi (1994) ArticleTitleObservations on cohorts of Tubifex tubifex cultured at different food levels, using cellulose substrate Hydrobiologia 278 315–320 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00142341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C. H. Ratsak S. A. L. M. Kooijman B. W. Kooi (1993) ArticleTitleModelling the growth of an oligochaete on activated sludge Water Research 27 737–749 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0043-1354(93)90136-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ratsak, C. H., 1994, Grazer induced sludge reduction in wastewater treatment. Thesis, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.

  • C. H. Ratsak (2001) ArticleTitleEffects of Nais elinguis on the performance of an activated sludge plant Hydrobiologia 463 217–222 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1013124212793

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. H. Rensink W. H. Rulkens (1997) ArticleTitleUsing metazoa to reduce sludge production Water Science and Technology 36 171–179 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0273-1223(97)00679-3 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXos1ymug%3D%3D

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • T. B. Reynoldson (1987) ArticleTitleThe role of environmental factors in the ecology of tubificid oligochaetes – an experimental study Holarctic Ecology 10 241–248

    Google Scholar 

  • T. B. Reynoldson P. Rodriguez M. A. Martinez Madrid (1996) ArticleTitleComparison of reproduction, growth and acute toxicity in two populations of Tubifex tubifex (Müller, 1774) from the North America Great Lakes and northern Spain Hydrobiologia 334 199–206 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00017370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. A. Robbins P. L. McCall J. B. Fisher J. R. Krezoski (1979) ArticleTitleEffects of deposit-feeders on migration of 137Cs in lake sediments Earth Planet Science Letters 42 277–287 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0012-821X(79)90035-9 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaE1MXhslWrtbo%3D

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • J. A. Robbins T. J. Keilty D. S. White D. N. Edgington (1989) ArticleTitleRelationships among tubificid abundances, sediment composition, and accumulation rates at Lake Erie Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 46 223–231 Occurrence Handle10.1139/f89-031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • P. Rodriquez M. Martinez-Madrid J. A. Arrate E. Navarro (2001) ArticleTitleSelective feeding by the oligochaete Tubifex tubifex (Tubificidae, Clitellata) Hydrobiologia 463 133–140 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1013199507341

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Saabye H.-G. Schwinning (1994) ArticleTitleTreatment and beneficial use of sewage sludge in the European Union ISWA Times 3 1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • G. Sauter H. Güde (1996) ArticleTitleInfluence of grain size on the distribution of tubificid oligochaete species Hydrobiologia 334 97–101 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00017358

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • T. Timm (1984) ArticleTitlePotential age of aquatic Oligochaeta Hydrobiologia 115 101–104 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00027901

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • L. C. Vigueros E. R. Camperos (2002) ArticleTitleVermicomposting of sewage sludge: a new technology for Mexico Water Science and Technology 46 153–158 Occurrence Handle12479465

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • B. Wachs (1967) ArticleTitleDie Oligochaeten-Fauna der Fliessgewässer unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Beziehungen zwischen der Tubificiden-Besiedlung und dem Substrat Archiv für Hydrobiology 63 310–386

    Google Scholar 

  • M. Wavre R. O. Brinkhurst (1971) ArticleTitleInteractions between some tubificid oligochaetes and bacteria found in the sediments of Toronto Harbour, Ontario Journal Fisheries Research Board of Canada 28 335–341

    Google Scholar 

  • Y. Wei R. T. Houten Particlevan A. R. Borger D. H. Eikelboom Y. B. Fan (2003) ArticleTitleComparison performances of membrane bioreactor and conventional activated sludge processes on sludge reduction induced by oligochaete Environmental Science and Technology 37 3171–3180 Occurrence Handle10.1021/es026176d Occurrence Handle12901667 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXksVChsrw%3D

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Y. Wei R. T. Houten Particlevan A. R. Borger D. H. Eikelboom Y. B. Fan (2003) ArticleTitleMinimization of excess sludge production for biological wastewater treatment Water Research 37 4453–4467 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00441-X Occurrence Handle14511716 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXntl2juro%3D

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WIRES, 2004. EU Project ID nr EVK1-CT-2000-00050.Ways of innovation for the reduction of excess sludge.

  • R. Zahner (1967) Refinement in empirical functions for realistic soil-moisture regimes under forest cover W. E. Sopper H. W. Lull (Eds) Forest Hydrology Pergamon Press New York, NY 261–272

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, B. & K. Yamamoto, 1997. The role of predators on sludge mineralization in membrane separation bioreactor. Thesis Zhang, Boran (Prof. Yamamoto): A Study on Microbial Activities and The Role of Predators in Membrane Separation Activated Sludge Process. Dept. of Urban Engineering, the University of Tokyo.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sub-department of Environmental Technology, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 8129, 6700, EV, Wageningen, Bennekom, The Netherlands

    Christa H. Ratsak

  2. DHV BV, P.O. Box 1132, 3818, BC, Amersfoort, The Netherlands

    Jaap Verkuijlen

Authors
  1. Christa H. Ratsak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jaap Verkuijlen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christa H. Ratsak.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ratsak, C.H., Verkuijlen, J. Sludge Reduction by Predatory Activity of Aquatic Oligochaetes in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Science or Fiction? A Review. Hydrobiologia 564, 197–211 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-1719-7

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-1719-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation