Abstract
Scholars have often puzzled over why ancient socio-ecological systems (SES) have collapsed or survived overtime. This paper examines the case of the 2,000-year old Ifugao SES in the northern Philippines and the contemporary challenges they now face. Five observations can be drawn. First, the Ifugao case does not fit some of the conventional theoretical explanations for the collapse or survival of SES. Second, the Ifugao’s primogeniture system of property rights along with the their customary laws and practices have played important roles in maintaining the robustness of their SES through their effects on ecological integrity. Third, the Ifugao SES today is faced with contemporary challenges with varying effects on its robustness: integration into a post-colonial social order, the effects of tourism and agricultural development, migration, urbanization and the introduction of Christianity and mass education. Fourth, despite these changes, it is not a certainty that the Ifugao will shift to a new domain of attraction that cannot support a human population, or that will induce a transition that causes long-term human suffering. Finally, the Ifugao case study adds to our understanding of robust SES.
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Notes
The regional government bodies charged with managing waterways.
By traditional Ifugao, I refer to those who continue to practice and subscribe to the ancient Ifugao belief system in contrast to the contemporary Christianized Ifugaos.
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Acknowledgments
This study was funded by US NSF Grant BCS-0527744 through the Center for the Study of Institutional Diversity, Arizona State University. I thank Elinor Ostrom and Marty Anderies for their encouragement, helpful comments and funding support. The usual caveats apply.
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Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Batad Rice Terraces, Banaue, Ifugao. Altogether, the Ifugao rice terraces cover an area nearly 4,000 km2 in steep mountainous slopes of as high as 70°, with more than 20,000 km of terraced bunds, 7,000 km of which are stone walled. Note the well protected forest and watershed above the terraces. Maintaining these forests requires the design of a primogeniture system of property rights and low transaction costs. The need to maintain ecological integrity with the rice terraces has led to the emergence and longevity of the primogeniture system of property rights. Note also the relatively small and stable population of the village, which led to the emergence of a polycentric social order that did not depend upon a centralized form of government until their integration into the Philippine nation state. A small, stable and isolated population linked by consanguinity or kinship ties led to the emergence of commonly shared religious beliefs conjoined with law, norms and taboos and reinforced by dense social networks. Photo by Conklin and Javellana (2008)
Another view of the Batad Rice terraces cluster (Source: UNESCO 2008)
Another view of the terraces in Banawol District, Ifugao. Note the finely curved terraced bunds following the contours of the mountainside. In places where there is no ample supply of stones, the terraces are built with earthen materials. In places where there is abundant stones from the riverbeds, terraces are built with stones. Some 7,000 km of these type of terraces are found in Ifugao. Photo by Conklin and Javellana (2008)
Left photo, a closer look at the stonewalled terraces in Central Mayaoyao. The sturdy stone walled terraces have made it possible for the terraces to last for a long time. There are an estimated 7,000 km of these stone walled terraces in Ifugao. In contrast, newly built earthen terraces (right) are brittle and requires constant repair. There are some 13,000 km of these type of terraces (below). Photo by Dustin Butler (2008)
A close up shot of the rice terraces in Banaue, Ifugao. Note the height of the ponds relative to the height of the farmers. Operating and maintaining the rice terraces require considerable skills in structural and hydraulic engineering. Photo by John Rawlinson (2006)
Increased connectivity through roads and tourism has led to the partial urbanization of the rice terraces in Banaue, Ifugao province. Some terraces have been converted for a different land use but this has not necessarily led to the collapse of the Ifugao SES. The system just shifted into a different mode of production, from farming to tourism services and commerce. Photo by Conklin and Javellana (2008)
In the past, the Ifugaos spend some 192 days a year to practice more than 37 types of rituals, and worship more than 1,500 deities covering all aspects of life from birth to death and afterlife. Rituals serve as mechanisms to transfer knowledge and promote socialization, while deities serve to constrain behavior, both of which lower transaction costs. Ritual practices have significantly declined in recent years due to high costs and loss of interest by the younger generation who have been exposed to formal education and the internet. Photo by Dustin Butler (2008)
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Araral, E. What Makes Socio-ecological Systems Robust? An Institutional Analysis of the 2,000 Year-Old Ifugao Society. Hum Ecol 41, 859–870 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9617-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-013-9617-5