Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Darkness under the city lights: a qualitative study on the life of urban homelessness, evidence from Siliguri city of West Bengal, India

  • Published:
GeoJournal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Urban homeless peoples are always invisible and neglected in public policy, and they are treated as non-citizens in our cities. The paper investigated the living experiences of urban homelessness in the rapidly expanding city of Siliguri- ‘the gateway of north-east India’. A case study method using qualitative in-depth interviews and observation techniques has been applied to understand their significant problems and issues. The findings suggest that they have been forced to live in deplorable conditions since they are marginalized and ignored in every fundamental aspect of life. Basic human rights and access to basic amenities are forbidden to them, even they are not permitted and struggle to survive in the vacant space of the city. Surviving on the streets generally entails surviving in a physically and mentally challenging environment, with denial of fundamental human rights, lack of employment, and even no guaranteed nutritious food; they are turning themselves into drug addicts, criminals, and lawbreakers. The study also reveals that some specific homeless groups, including women, children, and elders, are the most vulnerable, and their threats to various menaces are even cumulated during the night. Even though they have equal opportunity and “right to the city,” these marginalized individuals have no place to assert their fundamental rights.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

(Source: Prepared by the author in GIS environment. The location of the night stay of homeless peoples was noted in Google map software during interview and field visit observation. Later processed and represented through GIS environment)

Fig. 2

(Source: Author)

Fig. 3

(Source: Author)

Fig. 4

(Source: Author)

Fig. 5

(Source: Author)

Fig. 6

(Source: Author)

Fig. 7

(Source: Author)

Fig. 8

(Source: Author)

Fig. 9

(Source: Author)

Fig. 10

(Source: Author)

Fig. 11

(Source: Author)

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and materials

Data are provided upon reasonable request.

References

  • Allen, M. (2017). The sage encyclopedia of communication research methods (Vol. 1–4). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, I., & Christian, J. (2003). Causes of homelessness in the UK: A dynamic analysis. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 13(2), 105–118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aratani, Y., & Cooper, J. L. (2015). The effects of runaway-homeless episodes on high school dropout. Youth & Society, 47(2), 173–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aspers, P., & Corte, U. (2019). What is qualitative in qualitative research. Qualitative Sociology, 42, 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-019-9413-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aviles, A., & Helfrich, C. (2004). Life skill service needs: Perspectives of homeless youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(4), 331–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ballal, A., & Planning, U. E. (2011). The city is our home the spatial dimensions of urban homelessness.

  • Barker, J. D. (2012). Social capital, homeless young people and the family. Journal of Youth Studies, 15(6), 730–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barman-Adhikari, A., Bowen, E., Bender, K., Brown, S., & Rice, E. (2016). A social capital approach to identifying correlates of perceived social support among homeless youth. In Child & Youth Care Forum, 45(5), 691–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya, D. B., & Mitra, S. (2013). Making Siliguri a walkable city. Procedia, 96, 2737–2744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bose, A., & Chowdhury, I. R. (2020). Monitoring and modelling of spatio-temporal urban expansion and landuse/land-cover change using markov chain model: A case study in Siliguri Metropolitan area, West Bengal India. Modelling Earth Systems and Environment, 6(4), 2235–2249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-020-00842-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, M., Aron, L. Y., & Lee, E. (2001). Helping America’s homeless: Emergency shelter or affordable housing? The Urban Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhry, S., Joseph, A., & Singh, I. P. (2014). Violence and violations: The reality of homeless women in India. New Delhi.

  • Cress, D. M., & Snow, D. A. (2000). The outcomes of homeless mobilization: The influence of organization, disruption, political mediation, and framing. American Journal of Sociology, 105(4), 1063–1104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cross, C., Seager, J., Erasmus, J., Ward, C., & O’Donovan, M. (2010). Skeletons at the feast: A review of street homelessness in South Africa and other world regions. Development Southern Africa, 27(1), 5–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., et al. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11, 100. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Culhane, D. P., Metraux, S., Park, J. M., Schretzman, M., & Valente, J. (2007). Testing a typology of family homelessness based on patterns of public shelter utilization in four US jurisdictions: Implications for policy and program planning. Housing Policy Debate, 18(1), 1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • District Census Handbook. (2011). Census of India 2011c. Darjiling. West Bengal. Retrieved:https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB_A/19/1901_PART_A_DCHB_DARJILING.pdf

  • DeForge, B. R., Belcher, J. R., O'Rourke, M., & Lindsey, M. A. (2008). Personal resources and homelessness in early life: Predictors of depression in consumers of homeless multiservice centers. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 13(2–3), 222–242.

  • Dholakia, R. H. (2017). Trends in regional disparity in human and social development in India. Indian Journal of Human Development, 3(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1177/20973703020090101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drani, S. B., Azman, A., & Singh, P. S. J. (2021). Do homeless people giving up hope? A qualitative study in Penang Malaysia. Asian Social Work Journal, 6(5), 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Embleton, L., Ayuku, D., Makori, D., et al. (2018). Causes of death among street-connected children and youth in Eldoret Kenya. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 18, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12914-018-0160-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fry, C. E., Langley, K., & Shelton, K. H. (2017). A systematic review of cognitive functioning among young people who have experienced homelessness, foster care, or poverty. Child Neuropsychology, 23(8), 907–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghatak, S., & Guchhait, S. K. (2021). The perspective of homeless space in the railway stations of India: A critical understanding through inter-personal network analysis. Health & Social Care in the Community, 30, e1678–e1689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh, A. (2018). The importance of being Siliguri: Border effect and the ‘Untimely’ city in North Bengal. Logistical Asia. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8333-4_7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh, S. (2020). Understanding homelessness in Neoliberal city: A study from Delhi. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 55(2), 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909619875775

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E., et al. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: Interviews and focus groups. British Dental Journal, 204, 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2008.192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goel, G., Ghosh, P., Ojha, M. K., & Shukla, A. (2017). Urban homeless shelters in India: Miseries untold and promises unmet. Cities, 71, 88–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goel, K., & Chowdhary, R. (2017). Living homeless in urban India: State and societal responses. In Faces of homelessness in the Asia Pacific (pp. 47–63). Routledge.

  • Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding reliability and validity in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, D. (2008). The Right to the City. New Left Review, 53.

  • Hindustan Times. (2016). Homeless women: Easy Targets. Retrived: https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/roofless-in-delhi-women/

  • Indo-Global Social Service-Society. (2018). Understanding homelessness in Delhi: Rethinking perspectives, policy & practice. New Delhi.

  • Jacobs, K., Kemeny, J., & Manzi, T. (1999). The struggle to define homelessness: A constructivist approach. Cassell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasinski, J. L., Wesely, J. K., Mustaine, E., Wright, J. D. (2005). The experience of violence in the lives of homeless women: A research report.

  • Johnsen, S., Fitzpatrick, S., & Watts, B. (2017). Homelessness and social control: A typology, housing studies.

  • Korstjens, I., & Moser, A. (2017). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 2: Context, research questions and designs. European Journal of General Practice, 23(1), 274–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375090

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lama-Rewal, S. T., Zérah, M. H., & Dupont, V. (2011). Right to the city and urban citizenship in the Indian context.

  • Lee, B. A., Tyler, K. A., & Wright, J. D. (2010). The new homelessness revisited. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 501–521.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lefebvre, H., Kofman, E., & Lebas, E. (1996). Writings on cities. Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux-Cumberlege, A., & Taylor, E. P. (2019). An exploratory study on the factors affecting the mental health and well-being of frontline workers in homeless services. Health & Social Care in the Community, 27(4), e367–e378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mabhala, M. A., & Yohannes, A. (2019). Being at the bottom rung of the ladder in an unequal society: A qualitative analysis of stories of people without a home. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 4620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mabhala, M. A., Yohannes, A., & Griffith, M. (2017). Social conditions of becoming homelessness: Qualitative analysis of life stories of homeless peoples. International Journal for Equity in Health, 16, 150. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0646-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mago, V. K., Morden, H. K., Fritz, C., Wu, T., Namazi, S., Geranmayeh, P., & Dabbaghian, V. (2013). Analyzing the impact of social factors on homelessness: A fuzzy cognitive map approach. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 13(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik, S., & Roy, S. (2012). A study on begging: A social stigma—An Indian perspective. Journal of Human Values, 18(2), 187–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandar, H. (2009). Living rough: Surviving city streets, a study of homeless populations in Delhi, Chennai, Patna, and Madurai. Centre for Equity Studies.

  • Mander, H., & Jacob, S. (2010). Homeless deaths on the streets. Centre for Equity Studies. Retrieved: https://www.hlrn.org.in/documents/Homeless_Deaths_Streets.pdf

  • Maxwell, J. (2005). Qualitative research design. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, J. (2000). Housing histories and homeless careers: A biographical approach. Housing Studies, 15(4), 613–638.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister, W., Kuang, L., & Lennon, M. C. (2010). Typologizing temporality: Time-aggregated and time-patterned approaches to conceptualizing homelessness. Social Service Review, 84(2), 225–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melnitzer, S. B. (2007). Marginalization and the homeless: A prescriptive analysis. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 16(3), 193–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, J., Bonner, A., & Francis, K. (2006). The development of constructivist grounded theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moser, A., & Korstjens, I. (2017). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 1: Introduction. European Journal of General Practice, 23(1), 271–273. https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375093

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moser, A., & Korstjens, I. (2018). Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. European Journal of General Practice, 4(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13814788.2017.1375091

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mundell, M. (2003). Homeless young people and unemployment, paper delivered at the interface youth conference. Sydney.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagavarapu, L. S., Raj, A., & Sekhar, K. (2019). Homelessness in mental illness: Opportunities & prospects in the Indian context. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 45, 28–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newslaundry. (2016). Half of India’s homeless children forced to be rag-pickers, or beggars. Retrieved: https://www.newslaundry.com/2016/04/29/half-of-indias-homeless-children-forced-to-be-rag-pickers-or-beggars

  • Note. (1997). Finding a place for the jobless in discrimination theory. Harvard Law Review, 110(7), 1609–1626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunez, R., & Fox, C. (1999). Snapshot of family homelessness across America. Political Science Quarterly, 114(2), 289–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nyumba, T. O., Wilson, K. A., Derrick, C., & Mukherjee, N. (2017). The use of focus group discussion methodology: Insights from two decades of application in conservation. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 20–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R., & Francis, P. (2004). Living with crime: Spaces of risk for homeless young people. Children’s Geographies, 2(1), 95–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, M. L., Moniruzzaman, A., & Somers, J. M. (2015). History of foster care among homeless adults with mental illness in Vancouver, British Columbia: A precursor to trajectories of risk. BMC Psychiatry, 15(1), 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phipps, M., Dalton, L., Maxwell, H., & Cleary, M. (2019). Women and homelessness, a complex multidimensional issue: Findings from a scoping review. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 28(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez, A., Beaton, L., & Freeman, R. (2019). Strengthening social interactions and constructing new oral health and health knowledge: The co-design, implementation and evaluation of a pedagogical workshop program with and for homeless young people. Dentistry Journal, 7(1), 11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rom, N. A. M., Hassan, N. M., Said, A. M. A., & Bachik, B. (2022). Desired support system to eradicate urban homelessness: an exploratory descriptive study. F1000Research, 11(41), 41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1994). Homeless in paradise: A map of the terrain. Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., Bose, A., Singha, N., Basak, D., & Chowdhury, I. R. (2021). Urban waterlogging risk as an undervalued environmental challenge: An Integrated MCDA-GIS based modeling approach. Environmental Challenges, 4, 100194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., & Mandal, G. (2020). The problems of elderly residing in slums: A case study on Siliguri municipality. Indian Journal of Gerontology, 34(3), 313–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., & Singha, N. (2020). Analysis of ambient air quality based on exceedance factor and air quality index for Siliguri City West Bengal. Current World Environment, 15(2), 235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., Koiri, P., & Shukla, S. K. (2018). Signposting invisibles: A study of the homeless population in India. Chinese Sociological Dialogue, 3(3), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/2397200918763087

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, D. A., & Anderson, L. (1993). Down on their luck: A study of homeless street people. University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somerville, P. (1992). Homelessness and the meaning of home: Rooflessness or rootlessness? International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 16(4), 529–539.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speak, S., & Tipple, G. (2006). Perceptions, persecution and pity: The limitations of interventions for homelessness in developing countries. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 30(1), 172–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steen, A., Mackenzie, D., & McCormack, D. (2012). Homelessness and unemployment: Understanding the connection and breaking the cycle. Swinburne Institute for Social Research, Swinburne University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Supreme Court Commissioners. (2014). Shelters for the Urban Homeless. A Handbook for Administrators and Policymakers. Delhi, India. ISBN: 978-81-926907-1-1.

  • The Hindu. (2015). Heat wave: Homeless continue to die. Retrieved: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/heat-wave-homeless-continue-to-die/article7270757.ece

  • The Hindu. (2019). NGO says death of homeless persons on rise every year; DUSIB refutes allegations. Retrieved: https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/ngo-says-death-of-homeless-persons-on-rise-every-year-dusib-refutes-allegations/article26019598.ece

  • The Indian Express. 2017. From 2001 to 2011, families without homes increased 37% in cities, fell 26% in villages. Retrieved: https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/from-2001-to-2011-families-without-homes-increased-37-in-cities-fell-26-in-villages-4626823/

  • Times of India. (2016). In 2 days, 7 homeless die in cold. Retrieved: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/in-2-days-7-homeless-die-in-cold/articleshow/50660968.cms

  • Tipple, G., & Speak, S. (2009). The hidden millions: Homelessness in developing countries. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203883341

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vaddiraju, A. K. (2016). Urban governance and right to the city. Economic & Political Weekly, 51(32), 21–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, V. (2017). Urban homelessness and the right to water and sanitation: Experiences from India’s cities. Water Policy, 16, 755–772. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2014.164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walters, V., & Gaillard, J. C. (2014). Disaster risk at the margins: Homelessness, vulnerability and hazards. Habitat International, 44, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.06.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A. (1998). Qualitative research: An introduction to purposes, methodology, criteria for judgment, and a rationale for mixed methodology. Retrieved: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED423285.pdf

  • The Wire. (2019). Patna: Driver runs over 3 sleeping children, beaten to death. Retrieved: https://thewire.in/rights/patna-driver-runs-over-3-sleeping-children-beaten-to-death

  • Wolch, J., & Dear, M. (1993). Malign neglect. Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Firstly, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Department of Geography & Applied Geography, University of North Bengal for providing opportunity in conducting the research work. Besides, the authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the respondents for their favourable response during the field survey without which it is not possible to find such novel result. Although any organization did not specifically fund the study, it was finished within the tenure of UGC-JRF. Finally, the authors would like to express their heartfelt appreciation to the editor and two anonymous reviewers for their informative remarks and ideas, which greatly assisted in improving the manuscript. This research study is carried out in compliance with transparency, field knowledge, moral values and hard work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography and Applied Geography, University of North Bengal, Siliguri, West Bengal, 734013, India

    Subham Roy, Arghadeep Bose & Indrajit Roy Chowdhury

Authors
  1. Subham Roy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Arghadeep Bose
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Indrajit Roy Chowdhury
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Subham Roy.

Ethics declarations

Competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Consent to participate

All respondents consent are taken and they gave their will to voluntarily take part in the study. Besides, Confidentiality of data and anonymity of participants are being observed.

Consent for publication

All the authors have read the manuscript carefully before submitting and give consent to submit.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Roy, S., Bose, A. & Chowdhury, I.R. Darkness under the city lights: a qualitative study on the life of urban homelessness, evidence from Siliguri city of West Bengal, India. GeoJournal 88, 2263–2285 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10753-x

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10753-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation