Abstract
Comets hold the key to the understanding of our Solar System, its formation and its evolution, and to the fundamental plasma processes at work both in it and beyond it. A comet nucleus emits gas as it is heated by the sunlight. The gas forms the coma, where it is ionised, becomes a plasma, and eventually interacts with the solar wind. Besides these neutral and ionised gases, the coma also contains dust grains, released from the comet nucleus. As a cometary atmosphere develops when the comet travels through the Solar System, large-scale structures, such as the plasma boundaries, develop and disappear, while at planets such large-scale structures are only accessible in their fully grown, quasi-steady state. In situ measurements at comets enable us to learn both how such large-scale structures are formed or reformed and how small-scale processes in the plasma affect the formation and properties of these large scale structures. Furthermore, a comet goes through a wide range of parameter regimes during its life cycle, where either collisional processes, involving neutrals and charged particles, or collisionless processes are at play, and might even compete in complicated transitional regimes. Thus a comet presents a unique opportunity to study this parameter space, from an asteroid-like to a Mars- and Venus-like interaction. The Rosetta mission and previous fast flybys of comets have together made many new discoveries, but the most important breakthroughs in the understanding of cometary plasmas are yet to come. The Comet Interceptor mission will provide a sample of multi-point measurements at a comet, setting the stage for a multi-spacecraft mission to accompany a comet on its journey through the Solar System. This White Paper, submitted in response to the European Space Agency’s Voyage 2050 call, reviews the present-day knowledge of cometary plasmas, discusses the many questions that remain unanswered, and outlines a multi-spacecraft European Space Agency mission to accompany a comet that will answer these questions by combining both multi-spacecraft observations and a rendezvous mission, and at the same time advance our understanding of fundamental plasma physics and its role in planetary systems.
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Acknowledgements
C. G. is supported by an ESA Research Fellowship. H. G. acknowledges support by the Swedish National Space Agency grant 108/18. B. S.-C. acknowledges support through UK-STFC grant ST/S000429/1. French co-authors acknowledge the support of CNES for the Rosetta and Comet Interceptor missions. I. M. acknowledges support through grants of Research Council of Norway (262941 and 275503).
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Appendix A: Addendum
Appendix A: Addendum
In the light of the White Papers that were submitted to ESA’s Voyage 2050 call, and the presentations and discussions at the workshop held in October 2019 in Madrid, we, as authors of the White Paper on Cometary Plasma Science, would like to add a few points to our discourse. In the White Paper we argue that comets provide a laboratory for studies of the role of small scale plasma processes in large scale systems, which is of general interest in physics and has implications for a wide range of situations in the Universe. We would like to highlight that the topic of the White Paper is strongly linked to a number of other Voyage 2050 submissions. Therefore, the lead author is a co-signatory of the joint statement “The Plasma Universe: A Coherent Science Theme for Voyage 2050”, by [147]. There are some additional aspects not stressed in the Cometary Plasma Science White Paper, where cometary plasma physics can have a major impact on Astronomy and Astrophysics.
An important topic in exoplanet research today is habitability, and the presence of an appropriate planetary atmosphere plays a key role for conditions for life since it is critical for a favourable climate and for maintaining liquid water on the surface. For life to evolve on a planet it is necessary that it remains habitable, and keeps a stable atmosphere, over long periods of time. From research on our own Solar System we know that interactions between the solar wind and the planetary environments have crucial impacts on atmospheric escape by which a planet’s atmosphere is gradually eroded [7, 17, 134]. The characteristics of plasma boundaries (e.g. ionopause, magnetopause, and bow shock) strongly affect the interaction of the planetary environment with the stellar wind [158]. Important escape processes, like sputtering and ion pickup that together dominate the escape from Venus, are highly dependent on the position of these boundaries [66]. Comets hold the key to the understanding of boundary formation on a fundamental level, and they also enable us to explore parameter regimes that are unavailable at planets in our Solar System by going through a wide range of parameters on their journey through the Solar System [65, 138]. Both these aspects can be used to make extrapolations to situations at planets orbiting other stars.
Considering the evolution of a planet (in our own Solar System or elsewhere) and its ability to hold on to its water, it is of particular interest to study the interaction of stellar winds with water-rich exospheres. Comets provide exactly that kind of environment, where water is the dominating particle species in the coma most of the time (see for example [74] for a Rosetta observation). As outlined in the White Paper, there is an intricate combination of collisional and non-collisional interaction processes in the regions where the solar wind passes through the water-dominated atmosphere.
We would also like to stress that to answer the outstanding questions in comet plasma physics requires simultaneous measurements by several spacecraft that accompany a comet for an extended period of time. It is a general problem in experimental space physics that one cannot distinguish between spatial and temporal effects from single-point observations. So far, all in-situ observations ever made at comets have been performed at one single point in space. The Comet Interceptor mission, which is now under development by ESA with a subspacecraft provided by JAXA, will be pioneering in that it is the first mission to provide multi-point measurements at a comet. However, as a Fast-class mission with a small budget, it is also limited, and it cannot replace a multi-point comet companion mission. This is due in part to its extremely sparse plasma instrumentation, not all subspacecraft carry a full set of plasma instruments, and in part to the mission being a fast flyby, which cannot provide more than a snapshot of the comet plasma in one single spacecraft formation and for one single heliocentric distance and outgassing rate. The mission concepts we outline in the White Paper will therefore constitute a major advance in plasma science, and thus impact the understanding of a wide range of plasma physical contexts in space and astrophysics.