Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Traffic and outdoor air pollution levels near highways in Baghdad, Iraq

  • Published:
Environment, Development and Sustainability Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In Iraq, the number of passenger cars, trucks and buses, local generators, and heavy construction equipment rose to a considerable extent since 2003, causing high environmental problems. Many types of pollutants were monitored and recorded for 24 h during March 2016. The study attempts to explore and establish a relationship between the volume of activity and the movement of motor vehicles of various compounds and contaminants resulting from their exhaust pipes, such as sulfur dioxide, particulate matters, oxides of nitrogen, VOCs, and unburned hydrocarbons. The study focused in and around Mohammad Al-Qasim highway adjacent to the University of Technology, Baghdad. The results showed the need for urgent treatments addressed by the environmental authorities in the city. The study results demonstrated that these contaminants are increased during periods of the beginning and end of working hours for government departments. Some types of sulfur compounds (H2S and SO2) concentrations were at serious health-threatening levels, which is a result of the high sulfur content in the Iraqi fuel. The concentrations of NOx and VOC were high, also, which could make the studied area vulnerable to the risk of smog formation. The Iraqi government should make greater efforts to protect the environment and human in this country from the transportation pollution risks.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed, S. T., & Chaichan, M. T. (2012). Effect of fuel cetane number on multi-cylinders direct injection diesel engine performance and emissions. Al-Khwarizmi Engineering Journal, 8(1), 65–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alaalem report. (2013). A scan: 112 cars for every thousand Iraqi citizens and 65 cars for each one paved street, 19 November 2013. Available at http://www.alaalem.com/programs/pdf/upload/irq_2002244289.pdf.

  • Al-Katheeri, E., Al-Jallad, F., & Al-Omar, M. (2012). Assessment of gaseous and particulate pollutants in the ambient air in Al Mirfa City, United Arab Emirates. Journal of Environmental Protection, 3, 640–647. doi:10.4236/jep.2012.37077.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Waeely, A. A., Salman, S. D., Abdol-Reza, W. K., Chaichan, M. T., Kazem, H. A., & Al-Jibori, H. S. S. (2014). Evaluation of the spatial distribution of shared electrical generators and their environmental effects at Al-Sader City-Baghdad-Iraq. International Journal of Engineering and Technology IJET-IJENS, 14(2), 16–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atiku, F. A., Bartle, K. D., Jones, J. M., Lea-Langton, A. R., & Williams, W. (2016). A study of the combustion chemistry of petroleum and bio-fuel oil asphaltenes. Fuel, 182, 517–524. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2016.05.129.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Babisch, W., Wolf, K., Petz, M., Heinrich, J., Cyrys, J., & Peters, A. (2014). Associations between traffic noise, particulate air pollution, hypertension, and isolated systolic hypertension in adults: The KORA study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 22(5), 492–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basner, M., Babisch, W., Davis, A., Brink, M., Clark, C., Janssen, S., et al. (2014). Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health. Lancet, 383(9925), 1325–1332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M. C., & Galatioto, F. (2013). Novel wireless pervasive sensor network to improve the understanding of noise in street canyons. Applied Acoustics, 74(1), 169–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boczkaj, G., Makoś, P., & Przyjazny, A. (2016). Application of dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry for the determination of oxygenated volatile organic compounds in effluents from the production of petroleum bitumen. Journal of Separation Science. doi:10.1002/jssc.201501355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolourinejad, P., Omrani, P. S., & Herber, R. (2014). Effect of reactive surface area of minerals on mineralization due to CO2 injection in a depleted gas reservoir. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 21, 11–22.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borrego, C., Lopes, M., Valente, J., Santos, J., Nunes, T., Martins, H., et al. (2007). Air pollution and child respiratory diseases: The Viseu case study, Portugal. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 101, 15–24.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, J., Chow, J. C., Lee, F. S. C., & Watson, J. G. (2013). Evolution of PM2.5 measurements and standards in the U.S. and future perspectives for China. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 13, 1197–1211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cao, J. J., Li, H., Chow, J. C., Watson, J. G., Lee, S. C., Rong, B., et al. (2011). Chemical composition of indoor and outdoor atmospheric particles at Emperor Qin’s Terra-cotta Museum, Xi’an, China. Aerosol and Air Quality Resarch, 11, 70–79.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao, J. J., Xu, H. M., Xu, Q., Chen, B. H., & Kan, H. D. (2012). Fine particulate matter constituents and cardiopulmonary mortality in a heavily polluted Chinese city. Environmental Health Perspectives, 120, 373–378.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T. (2012). Characterization of lean misfire limits of alternative gaseous fuels used for spark ignition engines. Tikrit Journal of Engineering Sciences, 19(1), 50–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T. (2015a). The impact of engine operating variables on emitted PM and Pb for an SIE fuelled with variable ethanol-Iraqi gasoline blends. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSRJMCE), 12(6–1), 72–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T. (2015b). Improvement of NOx-PM trade-off in CIE though blends of ethanol or methanol and EGR. International Advanced Research Journal in Science, Engineering and Technology, 2(12), 121–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T. (2016). Evaluation of emitted particulate matters emissions in multi-cylinder diesel engine fueled with biodiesel. American Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 4(1), 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T., & Faris, S. S. (2015). Practical investigation of the environmental hazards of idle time and speed of compression ignition engine fueled with Iraqi diesel fuel. International Journal for Mechanical and Civil Engineering, 12(1), 29–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T., & Kazem, H. A. (2012). Status and future prospects of renewable energy in Iraq. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 6007–6012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaichan, M. T., Maroon, O. K., & Abaas, K. I. (2016). The effect of diesel engine cold start period on the emitted emissions. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 7(3), 749–753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cirach, M., Cyrys, J., de Hoogh, K., De Nazelle, A., de Vocht, F., Declercq, C., et al. (2012). Spatial variation of PM2.5, PM10, PM2.5 absorbance and PMcoarse concentrations between and within 20 European study areas and the relationship with NO2 e results of the ESCAPE project. Atmospheric Environment, 62, 303–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amato, G., Holgate, S. T., Pawankar, R., Ledford, D. K., Cecchi, L., Al-Ahmad, M., et al. (2015). Meteorological conditions, climate change, new emerging factors, and asthma and related allergic disorders. A statement of the World Allergy Organization. World Allergy Organization Journal, 8(25), 1–52. doi:10.1186/s40413-015-0073-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delfino, R. J., Chang, J., Wu, J., Ren, C., Tjoa, T., Nickerson, B., et al. (2009). Repeated hospital encounters for asthma in children and exposure to traffic-related air pollution near the home. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 102(2), 138–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derstroff, B., Hüser, I., Sander, R., Bourtsoukidis, E., Crowley, J. N., Fischer, H., et al. (2016). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in photochemically aged air from the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions. doi:10.5194/acp-2016-746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duan, F. K., He, K. B., Ma, Y. L., Yang, F. M., Yu, X. C., Cadle, S. H., et al. (2006). Concentration and chemical characteristics of PM2.5 in Beijing, China: 2001–2002. Science of the Total Environment, 355, 264–275.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EEA (European Environmental Agency). (2005). Environment and health, EEA report No. 10/2005. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2005.

  • Eeftens, M., Phuleria, H. C., Meier, R., Aguilera, I., Corradi, E., Davey, M., et al. (2015). Spatial and temporal variability of ultrafine particles, NO2, PM2.5, PM2.5 absorbance, PM10 and PM coarse in Swiss study areas. Atmospheric Environment, 111, 60–70.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EPA (National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)/Air and Radiation/US EPA). (2005). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-02/documents/criteria.pdf.

  • Essays, UK. (November 2013). Causes and effects of traffic congestion tourism essay. Retrieved from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/tourism/causes-and-effects-of-traffic-congestion-tourism-essay.php?cref=1.

  • Franciscoa, A. P., Alvimb, D. D., Gattic, L. V., & de Assunçãoa, C. R. P. J. V. (2016). Troposheric ozone and volatile organic compounds on a by the sugaracane industry. Quimica Nova. doi:10.21577/0100-4042.20160132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fritschi, L., Brown, L., Kim, R., Schwela, D., & Kephalopolous, S. (2011). Burden of disease from environmental noise–quantification of healthy life years lost in Europe. Denmark: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gersen, S., van Essen, M., Visser, P., Ahmad, M., Mokhov, A., Sepman, A., et al. (2014). Detection of H2S, SO2 and NO2 in CO2 at pressures ranging from 1 to 40 bar by using broadband absorption spectroscopy in the UV/Vis range. Energy Procedia, 63, 2570–2582.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goos, E., Riedel, U., Zhao, L., & Blum, L. (2011). Phase diagrams of CO2 and CO2–N2 gas mixtures and their application in compression processes. Energy Procedia, 4, 3778–3785.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halonen, J. I., Hansell, A. L., Gulliver, J., Morley, D., Blangiardo, M., Fecht, D., et al. (2015). Road traffic noise is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and all-cause mortality in London. European Heart Journal, 36(39), 2653–2661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hänninen, O., Knol, A. B., Jantunen, M., Lim, T. A., Conrad, A., Rappolder, M., et al. (2014). Environmental burden of disease in Europe: Assessing nine risk factors in six countries. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122(5), 439–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassanvand, M. S., Naddafi, K., Faridi, S., Nabizadeh, R., Sowlat, M. H., Momeniha, F., et al. (2015). Characterization of PAHs and metals in indoor/outdoor PM10/PM2.5/PM1 in a retirement home and a school dormitory. Science of the Total Environment. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.05.001.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heal, M. R., Kumar, P., & Harrison, R. M. (2012). Particles, air quality, policy and health. Chemical Society Reviews, 41, 6606–6630.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hinds, W. C. (2001). Physical and chemical changes in the particulate phase. In P. Baron & K. Willeke (Eds.), Aerosol measurement: principles, techniques, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 83–97). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamhari, A. A., Sahani, M., Latif, M. T., Chan, K. M., Tan, H. S., Khan, M. F., et al. (2014). Concentration and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM10 of urban, industrial and semi-urban areas in Malaysia. Atmospheric Environment, 86, 16–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jansen, K. L., Larson, T. V., Koenig, J. Q., Mar, T. F., Fieidsl, C., Stewart, J., et al. (2005). Associations between health effects and particulate matter and black carbon in subjects with respiratory disease. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(12), 1741–1746.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jegal, Y., & Kim, Y. (2015). Industrial chemicals and acute lung injury with a focus on exposure scenarios. Current Respiratory Medicine Reviews., 12, 44–55. doi:10.2174/1573398X11666151026222005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kgabaar net. (2015). Do you know how many cars in Iraq, 20 January 2015. Available at http://www.khabaar.net/index.php/permalink/45944.html.

  • Kovacs, A., Mortl, M., & Kende, A. (2011). Development and optimization of a method for the analysis of phenols and chlorophenols from aqueous samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, after solid phase extraction and trimethylsilylation. Microchemical Journal, 99, 125–131.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liati, A., Schreiber, D., Eggenschwiler, P. D., Dasilva, Y. A. R., & Spiteri, A. C. (2016). Electron microscopic characterization of soot particulate matter emitted by modern direct injection gasoline engines. Combustion and Flame, 166, 307–315. doi:10.1016/j.combustflame.2016.01.031.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liaud, C., Millet, M., & Le Calvé, S. (2015). An analytical method coupling accelerated solvent extraction and HPLC-fluorescence for the quantification of particle-bound PAHs in indoor Air sampled with a 3-stages cascade impactor. Talanta, 131, 386–394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luong, L. M. T., Phung, D., Sly, P. D., Morawska, L., & Thai, P. K. (2016). The association between particulate air pollution and respiratory admissions among young children in Hanoi, Vietnam. Science of the Total Environment. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.012.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lv, Y. H., Lu, X., & Guo, X. (2013). Blood pressure changes and chemical constituents of particulate air pollution: results from the healthy volunteer natural relocation (HVNR) study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 121(1), 66–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ma, Y., Xiao, B., Liu, C., Zhao, Y., & Zheng, X. (2016). Association between ambient air pollution and emergency room visits for respiratory diseases in spring dust storm season in Lanzhou, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(613), 2–14. doi:10.3390/ijerph13060613.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCreanor, J., Cullinan, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Stewart-Evans, J., Malliarou, E., Jarup, L., et al. (2007). Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons with asthma. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(23), 2348–2358.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meng, Y. Y., Wilhelm, M., Rull, R. P., English, P., & Ritz, B. (2007). Traffic and outdoor air pollution levels near residences and poorly controlled asthma in adults. Annals of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 98(5), 455–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Münzel, T., Gori, T., Babisch, W., & Basner, M. (2014). Cardiovascular effects of environmental noise exposure. European Heart Journal, 35(13), 829–836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nussbaum, N. J., Zhu, D., Kuhns, H. D., Mazzoleni, C., Chang, M. C. O., Moosmuller, H., et al. (2009). The in-plume emission test stand: An instrument platform for the real-time characterization of fuel-based combustion emissions. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 59, 1437–1445. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.59.12.1437.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rancière, H., Bougas, N., Viola, M., & Momas, I. (2016). Early exposure to traffic-related air pollution, respiratory symptoms at 4 years of age, and potential effect modification by parental allergy, stressful family events, and gender: A prospective follow-up study of the PARIS birth cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives. doi:10.1289/EHP239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reno, A. L., Brooks, E. G., & Ameredes, P. T. (2015). Mechanisms of heightened airway sensitivity and responses to inhaled SO2 in asthmatics. Environmental Health Insights, 9(S1), 12–25. doi:10.4137/EHI.S15671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ristovska, G., Laszlo, H. E., & Hansell, A. L. (2014). Reproductive outcomes associated with noise exposure—A systematic review of the literature. International journal of environmental research and public health, 11(8), 7931–7952.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rückerl, R., Schneider, A., Breitner, S., Cyrys, J., & Peters, A. (2011). Health effects of particulate air pollution: A review of epidemiological evidence. Inhalation Toxicology, 23, 555–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rui, M., Shengzhuo, Y. (2015). Analysis of engine particulate matter emission testing equipment. In 7th International Conference on Mechanical and Electronics Engineering (ICMEE 2015). doi:10.1051/matecconf/20153103015.

  • Serrano, M., Gallego, M., & Silva, M. (2013). Static headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the one-step derivatisation and extraction of eleven aldehydes in drinking water. Journal of Chromatography A, 1307, 158–165.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shams, D. F., Qasim, A. M., Khalid, K., & Shah, K. H. (2014). Impact of biogas on sustainable livelihood in rural areas a case study of swat, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 4(8S), 28–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun, J., Wu, F., Hu, B., Tang, G., Zhang, J., & Wang, Y. (2016). VOC characteristics, emissions and contributions to SOA formation during hazy episodes. Atmospheric Environment, 141, 560–570. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.060.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tobollik, M., Keuken, M., Sabel, C., Cowie, H., Tuomisto, J., Sarigiannis, D., et al. (2016). Health impact assessment of transport policies in rotterdam: Decrease of total traffic and increase of electric car use. Environmental Research, 146, 350–358. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.01.014.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UAE, Ministry of Environment Report. (2015). Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/lenovo%20i300/Downloads/State%20of%20Environment%20Report.pdf.

  • Voskampa, I. M., Spiller, M., Stremke, S., Breg, A. K., Vreugdenhil, C., & Rijnaarts, H. H. M. (2016). Space-time information analysis for resource-conscious urban planning and design: A stakeholder based identification of urban metabolism data gaps. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.08.026.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Jin, L., Gao, J., Shi, J., Zhao, Y., Liu, S., et al. (2013). Investigation of speciated VOC in gasoline vehicular exhaust under ECE and EUDC test cycles. Science of the Total Environment, 445–446, 110–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, B., & Li, W. (2011). Atmospheric concentrations and air–soil gas exchange of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in remote, rural village and urban areas of Beijing-Tianjin Region, North China. Science of the Total Environment, 409, 2942–2950.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2005). Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide Global update 2005 Summary of risk assessment. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/69477/1/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf.

  • WHO (Health aspects of air pollution). (2004). Results from the World Health Organization project ‘Systematic review of health aspects of air pollution’. WHO Europe, June 2004.

  • Wu, Y., Yang, L., Zheng, X., Zhang, S., Song, S., Li, J., et al. (2014). Characterization and source apportionment of particulate PAHs in the roadside environment in beijing. Science of the Total Environment, 470, 76–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, W., Zhao, B., Wang, S., & Hao, J. (2016). Ozone and secondary organic aerosol formation potential from anthropogenic volatile organic compounds emissions in China. Journal of Environmental Sciences.. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2016.03.025.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ye, P., Ding, X., Hakala, J., Hofbauer, V., Robinson, E. S., & Donahue, N. M. (2016). Vapor wall loss of semi-volatile organic compounds in a Teflon chamber. Aerosol Science and Technology, 50, 822–834. doi:10.1080/02786826.2016.1195905.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X., Huang, T., Zhang, L., Gao, H., Shen, Y., & Ma, J. (2016). Trends of deposition fluxes and loadings of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the artificial three northern regions shelter forest across Northern China. Environmental Pollution, 207, 238–247. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Hu, J., Ying, Q., & Hu, X. (2015). Relationships between meteorological parameters and criteria air pollutants in three megacities in China. Environmental Research, 140, 242–254. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.004.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, Y., Unger, N., Hodzic, A., Emmons, L., Knote, C., Tilmes, S., et al. (2015). Limited effect of anthropogenic nitrogen oxides on secondary organic aerosol. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 15, 13487–13506. doi:10.5194/acp-15-13487-2015.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuo, F., Li, Y., Johnson, S., Johnson, J., Varughese, S., Copes, R., et al. (2014). Temporal and spatial variability of traffic-related noise in the City of Toronto, Canada. Science of the Total Environment, 472, 1100–1107.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

The authors like to acknowledge the Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center and The Environment Research Center in the University of Technology in Baghdad-Iraq, for their assistance and support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

    Miqdam T. Chaichan

  2. Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, Sohar, Sultanate of Oman

    Hussien A. Kazem

  3. Environment Research Center, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

    Talib A. Abed

Authors
  1. Miqdam T. Chaichan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hussien A. Kazem
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Talib A. Abed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Miqdam T. Chaichan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chaichan, M.T., Kazem, H.A. & Abed, T.A. Traffic and outdoor air pollution levels near highways in Baghdad, Iraq. Environ Dev Sustain 20, 589–603 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9900-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9900-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation