Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Forced Choice Restriction in Promoting Sustainable Food Consumption: Intended and Unintended Effects of the Mandatory Vegetarian Day in Helsinki Schools

  • ORIGINAL PAPER
  • Published:
Journal of Consumer Policy Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper discusses the use of forced restriction of food choice as an instrument of food policy by using the mandatory Helsinki School District weekly vegetarian day as a natural experiment. Overall, the results show that the initiative produced a mixture of intended and unintended effects. On vegetarian days, there were clear signs of non-compliance in the short term, manifested as a decrease in the participation in school lunches and in the amount of food taken to the plate and as an increase in plate waste. In the medium term, the only sign of non-compliance was a decrease in the amount of food taken to the plate. The difference between the short- and medium-term effects can be interpreted as a weakening of non-compliance, as a change in the way it manifested itself, or a combination of both. The effects of the vegetarian day differed between school levels. In the short term, the clearest indications of non-compliance were found in lower-secondary schools. However, these schools also registered positive spillover effects in the medium term. The best way to reduce the unintended effects of a policy involving forced choice restriction depends on the causes of such effects. In the case of psychological reactance, default options may be preferable to forced choice restriction. For hedonic dislike, menu development should be prioritized, and moral suasion and information campaigns may help where non-compliance stems from a disagreement with the objectives and effectiveness of the intervention. Thus, forced choice restriction should be accompanied by detailed data collection to understand the possible causes of intended and unintended effects and to tailor the intervention to the target group.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Ideally, the first set of intervention data would have contained measurements also for mixed-food days in intervention schools, and the second set of intervention data would have contained measurements for more than one vegetarian day, but for practical reasons this was not possible.

References

  • Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baroni, L., Cenci, L., Tettamanti, M., & Berati, M. (2007). Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different forms of production systems. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61(2), 279–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernheim, B., Fradkin, A., & Popov, I. (2011). The welfare economics of default options: A theoretical and empirical analysis of 401(k) plans, NBER Working Papers: 17587. National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.

  • Blum, J. E. W., Davee, A.-M., Beaudoin, C. M., Jenkins, P. L., Kaley, L. A., & Wigand, D. A. (2008). Reduced availability of sugar-sweetened beverages and diet soda has a limited impact on beverage consumption patterns in Maine high school youth. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 40(6), 341–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Botti, S., Broniarczyk, S., Häubl, G., Hill, R., Huang, Y., Kahn, B., et al. (2008). Choice under restriction. Marketing Letters, 19(3–4), 183–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press, New York, NY.

  • Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. Academic Press, New York, NY.

  • Byrne, S., & Hart, P. (2009). The boomerang effect. Communication Yearbook, 33, 2–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, S., Linz, D., & Potter, W. (2009). A test of competing cognitive explanations for the boomerang effect in response to the deliberate disruption of media-induced aggression. Media Psychology, 12(3), 227–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caporale, G., Policastro, S., Tuorila, H., & Monteleone, E. (2009). Hedonic ratings and consumption of school lunch among preschool children. Food Quality and Preference, 20(7), 482–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson-Kanyama, A. (1998). Climate change and dietary choices—How can emissions of greenhouse gases from food consumption be reduced? Food Policy, 23(3–4), 277–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson-Kanyama, A., & Gonzales, A. D. (2009). Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate change. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89, 1704S–1709S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson-Kanyama, A., Ekstrom, M., & Shanahan, H. (2003). Food and life cycle energy inputs: Consequences of diet and ways to increase efficiency. Ecological Economics, 44(2–3), 293–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cash, S. B., Sunding, D. L., & Zilberman, D. (2005). Fat taxes and thin subsidies: Prices, diet, and health outcomes. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica: Section C, Food Economics, 2(3/4), 167–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, H., & Salmon, C. T. (2007). Unintended effects of health communication campaigns. Journal of Communication, 57(2), 293–317. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00344.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choose Vegetarian: Information about the campaign (Valitse vege: Tietoa kampanjasta). Retrieved 9 March 2012 from http://www.valitsevege.fi/node/2.

  • City of Helsinki Education Department [Helsingin kaupunki opetusvirasto]. (2012). Monipuolinen ateria tarjolla päivittäin [Balanced Meal Offered Daily]. Last updated 26 January, 2012, retrieved 9 March 2012 from http://www.hel.fi/wps/portal/Opetusvirasto/Artikkeli?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/Opev/fi/Oppilaan+etuudet/Kouluruokailu/

  • Cullen, K., Watson, K., & Zakeri, I. (2008). Improvements in middle school student dietary intake after implementation of the Texas Public School Nutrition Policy. American Journal of Public Health, 98(1), 111–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Keyzer, W., Von Caneghem, S., Heath, A.-L. M., Vanaelst, B., Verschraegen, M., De Henauw, S., et al. (2012). Short communication: Nutritional quality and acceptability of a weekly vegetarian lunch in primary-school canteens in Gent Belgium: Thursday veggie day. Public Health Nutrition, 15, 1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duchin, F. (2005). Sustainable consumption of food: A framework for analyzing scenarios about changes in diets. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 9(1/2), 99–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H., & Shanahan, M. J. (2006). The life course and human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 665–715). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fahlman, M. M., Dake, J. A., McCaughtry, N., & Martin, J. (2008). An intervention study to examine the effects of a nutrition intervention on nutrition knowledge, behaviors, and efficacy expectations in middle school children. Journal of School Health, 78(4), 216–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes, M. M. (2008). The effect of soft drink availability in elementary schools on consumption. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(9), 1445–1452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finnish Government. (2009). Periaatepäätös kestävien valintojen edistämisestä julkisissa hankinnoissa 8.4.2009. [Council of State Decision of Principle on the promotion of sustainable public procurement.] Retrieved 18 May 2012 from http://www.valtioneuvosto.fi/toiminta/periaatepaatokset/periaatepaatos/fi.jsp?oid=258914 .

  • Finnish National Board of Education. (2008). School meals in Finland. Retrieved 9 March 2012 from http://www.oph.fi/download/47657_school_meals_in_finland.pdf.

  • Gonzalez, A. D., Frostell, B., & Carlsson-Kanyama, A. (2011). Protein efficiency per unit energy and per unit greenhouse gas emissions: Potential contribution of diet choices to climate change mitigation. Food Policy, 36(5), 562–570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, R., Russell, J., & Barker, M. E. (2006). School lunch menus and 11 to 12 year old children’s food choice in three secondary schools in England—Are the nutritional standards being met? Appetite, 46(1), 86–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haapalahti, M., Mykkänen, H., Tikkanen, S., & Kokkonen, J. (2003). Meal patterns and food use in 10- to 11-year-old Finnish children. Public Health Nutrition, 6(4), 365–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Helsinki City Council. (2010). Helsinki City Council Decision no 3. [Helsingin kaupunginvaltuusto Päätöstiedote nro 3]. Retreived 9 March 2012 from http://www.hel2.fi/paatoksenteko/kvsto-tiedote/arkisto/20100217.html.

  • Hoppu, U., Lehtisalo, J., Tapanainen, H., & Pietinen, P. (2010). Dietary habits and nutrient intake of Finnish adolescents. Public Health Nutrition, 13, 965–972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, R., & Kiesel, K. (2012). Does limited access at school result in compensation at home? The effect of soft drink bans in schools on purchase patterns outside of schools. European Review of Economics, 39(5), 797–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeronen, E., & Helander K. (2012). Kouluruokahistoria [School food history] in Risku-Norja, H. , Jeronen, E., Kurppa S., Mikkola, M. and Uitto, A. (toim.) Ruoka–oppimisen edellytys ja opetuksen voimavara [Food as a prerequisite for learning and as a resource], 20–26. Retrieved 10 March 2010 from http://www.helsinki.fi/ruralia/julkaisut/pdf/Julkaisuja25.pdf.

  • Junnilainen, L. (2011). Lihan syömisen oikeudesta–Miksi kaupunginvaltuutetut kiistelevät kasvisruokapäivästä? [On the right of eating meat: Why do city councellors argue about the vegetarian day?], University of Helsinki, Faculty of Social Sciences, Sociology, Master’s thesis. Retrieved 9 March 2012 from https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/28212/Gradu_Junnilainen_Lihan_syomisen_oikeudesta.pdf?sequence=2.

  • Just, D. R., & Wansink, B. (2009). Smarter lunchrooms: Using behavioural economics to improve meal selection. Choices, 24 (3). Retrieved 18 May 2012 from http://www.choicesmagazine.org/magazine/article.php?article=87 .

  • Just, D. R., Wansink, B., Mancino, L., & Guthrie, J., (2008). Behavioural economics concepts to encourage healthy eating in school cafeterias: Experiments and lessons from college students. USDA-ERS Economic Research Report No. 68. Retrieved 18 May 2012 from http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err68/err68.pdf

  • Koivisto, U.-K., & Sjöden, P.-O. (1996). Reasons for rejection of food items in Swedish families with children aged 2–17. Appetite, 26, 89–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krølner, R., M. Rasmussen, J. Brug, K. -I Klepp, M. Wind, and P. Due. (2011). Determinants of fruit and vegetable consumption among children and adolescents: A review of the literature. Part II: Qualitative studies. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 8:112

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakkakula, A., Geaghan, J., Zanovec, M., Pierce, S., & Tuuri, G. (2010). Repeated taste exposure increases liking for vegetables by low-income elementary school children. Appetite, 55, 226–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lintukangas, S., Manninen, M., Mikkola-Montonen, A., Palojoki, P., Partanen, M. & Partanen, R. (2007). Kouluruokailun käsikirja, Laatueväitä koulutyöhön [Manual of school catering. Quality to schoolwork], National Board of Education (Opetushallitus).

  • Macdiarmid, J. I., Kyle, J., Horgan, G. W., Loe, J., Fyfe, D., Johnstone, A., et al. (2012). Sustainable diets for the future: Can we contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by eating a healthy diet? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(3), 632–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matheny, G., & Chan, K. (2005). Human diets and animal welfare: The illogic of the larder. Journal of Agricultural And Environmental Ethics, 18(6), 579–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nissinen, A., Grönroos, J., Heiskanen, E., Honkanen, A., Katajajuuri, J., Kurppa, S., et al. (2007). Developing benchmarks for consumer-oriented life cycle assessment-based environmental information on products, services and consumption patterns. Journal of Cleaner Production, 15(6), 538–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel, D., & Pimentel, M. (2003). Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 660S–663S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pretty, J., Sutherland, W. J., et al. (2010). The top 100 questions of importance to the future of global agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 8(4), 219–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reijnders, L., & Soret, S. (2003). Quantification of the environmental impact of different dietary protein choices. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 8S–664S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rummel, A., Howard, J., Swinton, J., & Bradley, S. D. (2000). You can’t have that! A study of reactance effects and children’s consumer behaviour. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 8(1), 38–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saarinen, M., Kurppa, S., Virtanen, Y., Usva, K., Mäkelä, J., & Nissinen, A. (2012). Life cycle assessment approach to the impact of home-made, ready-to-eat and school lunches on climate and eutrophication. Journal of Cleaner Production, 28, 177–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, M. B., Novak, S. A., & Fiore, S. S. (2009). The impact of removing snacks of low nutritional value from middle schools. Health Education & Behavior, 36, 999–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seemann, E. A., Buboltz, W. C., Jr., Jenkins, S. M., Soper, B., & Woller, K. (2004). Ethnic and gender differences in psychological reactance: The importance of reactance in multicultural counselling. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 17(2), 167–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, S., & Castellan, N. J., Jr. (1988). Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences (2nd edition) (p. 1988). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stehfest, E., Bouwman, L., van Vuuren, D. P., den Elzen, M. J., Eickhout, B., & Kabat, P. (2009). Climate benefits of changing diet. Climatic Change, 95(1/2), 83–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M. & de Haan, C. (2006). Livestock’s long shadow: Environmental issues and options. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 13 May 2012 from http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm.

  • Stutts, M., Zank, G. M., Smith, K. H., & Williams, S. A. (2011). Nutrition information and children’s fast food menu choices. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 45(1), 52–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taber, D. R., Chriqui, J. F., Powell, L. M., & Chaloupk, F. J. (2011). Banning all sugar-sweetened beverages in middle schools: Reduction of in-school access and purchasing but not overall consumption. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166(3), 256–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunstein, C. A., & Thaler, R. H. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thøgersen, J., & Crompton, T. (2009). Simple and painless? The limitations of spillover in environmental campaigning. Journal of Consumer Policy, 32(2), 141–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tikkanen, I., & Urho, U.-M. (2009). Free school meals, the plate model and food choices in Finland. British Food Journal, 111(2), 102–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vinnari, M., & Tapio, P. (2012). Sustainability of diets: From concepts to governance. Ecological Economics, 74, 46–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Virtanen, Y., Kurppa, S., Saarinen, M., Katajajuuri, J., Usva, K., Mäenpää, I., et al. (2011). Carbon footprint of food—approaches from national input–output statistics and a LCA of a food portion. Journal of Cleaner Production, 19(16), 1849–1856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahlen, S., Heiskanen, E., & Aalto, K. (2012). Endorsing sustainable food consumption: Prospects from public catering. Journal of Consumer Policy, 35(1), 7–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wirsenius, S., Hedenus, F., & Mohlin, K. (2011). Greenhouse gas taxes on animal food products: Rationale, tax scheme and climate mitigation effects. Climatic Change, 108(1/2), 159–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woller, K. P., Buboltz, W. C., Jr., & Loveland, J. M. (2007). Psychological reactance: Examination across age, ethnicity, and gender. The American Journal of Psychology, 120(1), 15–24.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the collaboration of the City of Helsinki Education Department and Palmia and the comments by Sari Ollila and Tobias Leenaert.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics and Management, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 27, Latokartanonkaari 9, Helsinki, 00014, Finland

    Chiara Lombardini & Leena Lankoski

Authors
  1. Chiara Lombardini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leena Lankoski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chiara Lombardini.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lombardini, C., Lankoski, L. Forced Choice Restriction in Promoting Sustainable Food Consumption: Intended and Unintended Effects of the Mandatory Vegetarian Day in Helsinki Schools. J Consum Policy 36, 159–178 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10603-013-9221-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10603-013-9221-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation