Abstract
Exposure to marital psychological and physical abuse has been established as a risk factor for children’s socio-emotional, behavioral, and cognitive problems. Understanding the processes by which children develop symptoms of psychopathology and deficits in cognitive functioning in the context of marital aggression is imperative for developing efficient and effective treatment programs for children and families, and has far-reaching mental health implications. The present paper outlines our research program, Child Regulation and Exposure to Marital Aggression, which focuses on children’s emotional and physiological reactivity and regulation as pathways in the marital aggression–child development link. Findings from our research program, which highlight the importance of children’s regulatory processes for understanding children’s adjustment in contexts of intimate partner violence, are presented, and future directions in this line of inquiry are outlined.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ballard, M., Cummings, E. M., & Larkin, K. (1993). Emotional and cardiovascular responses to adults’ angry behavior and challenging tasks in children of hypertensive and nomotensive parents. Child Development, 64, 500–515. doi:10.2307/1131265.
Bauer, A. M., Quas, J. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2002). Associations between physiological reactivity and children’s behavior: Advantages of a multisystem approach. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23(2), 102–113.
Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Quigley, K. S. (1991). Autonomic determinism: The modes of autonomic control, the doctrine of autonomic space, and the laws of autonomic constraint. Psychological Review, 98, 459–487. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.4.459.
Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2004). Cardiac vagal regulation across the preschool period: Stability, continuity, and implications for childhood adjustment. Developmental Psychobiology, 45(3), 101–112. doi:10.1002/dev.20020.
Cole, P. M., Luby, J., & Sullivan, M. W. (2008). Emotion and development of childhood depression: Bridging the gap. Child Development Perspectives, 2(3), 141–148.
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 73–100.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1996). Emotional security as a regulatory process in normal development and the development of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 123–139.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43, 31–63. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00003.
Cummings, E. M., El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., & Keller, P. S. (2007a). Children’s skin conductance reactivity as a mechanism of risk in the context of parental depressive symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48(5), 436–445. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01713.x.
Cummings, E. M., Faircloth, W. B., Mitchell, P. M., Cummings, J. S., & Schermerhorn, A. C. (2008). Evaluating a brief prevention program for improving marital conflict in community families. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 193–202. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.2.193.
Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Papp, L. M. (2004). Everyday marital conflict and child aggression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 191–202. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000019770.13216.be.
Cummings, E. M., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Papp, L. M., & Dukewich, T. L. (2002). Children’s responses to mothers’ and fathers’ emotionality and tactics in marital conflict in the home. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 478–492. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.478.
Cummings, E. M., Kouros, C. D., & Papp, L. M. (2007b). Marital aggression and children’s responses to everyday interparental conflict. European Psychologist, 12, 17–28. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.1.17.
Cummings, E. M., Schermerhorn, A. C., Davies, P. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, J. S. (2006). Interparental discord and child adjustment: Prospective investigations of emotional security as an explanatory mechanism. Child Development, 77(1), 132–152. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00861.x.
Cummings, E. M., Vogel, D., Cummings, J. S., & El-Sheikh, E. (1989). Children’s responses to different forms of expression of anger between adults. Child Development, 60, 1392–1404. doi:10.2307/1130929.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387–411. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1998). Exploring children’s emotional security as a mediator of the link between marital relations and child adjustment. Child Development, 69, 124–139.
Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Externalizing behavior problems and discipline revisited: Nonlinear effects and variation by culture, context, and gender. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 161–175. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0803_1.
Deater-Deckard, K., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., & Petit, G. S. (1996). Physical discipline among African American and European American mothers: Links to children’s externalizing behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1065–1072. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.1065.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136–157. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.136.
El-Sheikh, M. (1997). Children’s responses to adult-adult and mother-child arguments: The role of parental marital conflict and distress. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 165–175. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.11.2.165.
El-Sheikh, M. (2001). Parental drinking problems and children's adjustments: Vagal regulation and emotional reactivity as pathways and moderators of risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 499–515.
El-Sheikh, M. (2005a). Stability of respiratory sinus arrhythmia in children and young adolescents: A longitudinal examination. Development and Psychopathology, 46, 66–74.
El-Sheikh, M. (2005b). The role of emotional responses and physiological reactivity in the marital conflict-child functioning link. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 46, 1191–1199. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.00418.x.
El-Sheikh, M. (2007). Children's skin conductance level and reactivity: Are these measures stable over time and across tasks? Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 180–186.
El-Sheikh, M., Buckhalt, J., Cummings, E. M., & Keller, P. (2007a). Sleep disruptions and emotional insecurity are pathways of risk for children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 48, 88–96. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01604.x.
El-Sheikh, M., Buckhalt, J., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P., & Acebo, C. (2007b). Child emotional insecurity and academic achievement: The role of sleep disruptions. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 29–38. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.1.29.
El-Sheikh, M., Buckhalt, J., Mize. J., & Acebo, C. (2006). Marital conflict and disruption of children's sleep. Child Development, 77, 31–43.
El-Sheikh, E., & Cheskes, J. (1995). Background verbal and physical anger: A comparison of children’s responses to adult–adult and adult–child arguments. Child Development, 66, 446–458. doi:10.2307/1131589.
El-Sheikh, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1992). Availability of control and preschoolers’ responses to interadult anger. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15, 207–226.
El-Sheikh, E., Cummings, E. M., Kouros, C. D., Elmore-Staton, L., & Buckhalt, J. (2008). Marital psychological and physical aggression and children’s mental and physical health: Direct, mediated, and moderated effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 138–148. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.1.138.
El-Sheikh, M., Harger, J., & Whitson, S. M. (2001). Exposure to interparental conflict and children’s adjustment and physical health: The moderating role of vagal tone. Child Development, 72, 1617–1636. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00369.
El-Sheikh, M., Keller, P. S., & Erath, S. A. (2007c). Marital conflict and risk for child maladjustment over time: Skin conductance level reactivity as a vulnerability factor. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 715–727. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9127-2.
El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., Erath, S., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P., & Staton, L. (in press). Marital conflict and children’s externalizing behavior: Interactions between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.
El-Sheikh, M., & Reiter, S. L. (1996). Children’s responding to live interadult conflict: The role of form of anger expression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 401–415. doi:10.1007/BF01441564.
El-Sheikh, M., & Whitson, S. A. (2006). Longitudinal relations between marital conflict and child adjustment: Vagal regulation as a protective factor. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 30–39. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.1.30.
Erath, S. A., El-Sheikh, M., & Cummings, E. M. (in press). Harsh parenting and child externalizing behavior: Skin conductance level reactivity as a moderator. Child Development.
Fantuzzo, J. W., & Fusco, R. A. (2007). Children’s direct exposure to types of domestic violence crime: A population-based investigation. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 543–552. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9105-z.
Gelles, R. J. (1993). Through a sociological lens: Social structure and family violence. In R. J. Gelles & D. R. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 31–46). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Gerard, J. M., & Buehler, C. (1999). Multiple risk factors in the family environment and youth problem behaviors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 343–361. doi:10.2307/353753.
Goeke-Morey, M. C., Cummings, E. M., Harold, G. T., & Shelton, K. H. (2003). Categories and continua of destructive and constructive marital conflict tactics from the perspective of U.S. and Welsh children. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 327–338. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.327.
Gregory, A. M., Caspi, A., Eley, T. C., Moffitt, T. E., O’Connor, T. G., & Pouton, R. (2005). Prospective longitudinal associations between persistent sleep problems in childhood and anxiety and depression disorders in adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 157–163.
Harger, J., & El-Sheikh, M. (2003). Are children more angered and distressed by man–child than woman–child arguments and by interadult versus adult–child disputes? Social Development, 12, 162–181. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00227.
Harold, G. T., Aitken, J. J., & Shelton, K. H. (2007). Interparental conflict and children's academic attainment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1223–1232.
Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2004). Marital conflict, child emotional security about family relationships and child adjustment. Social Development, 13, 350–376. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00272.x.
Holden, G. W. (2003). Children exposed to domestic violence and child abuse: Terminology and taxonomy. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 151–160. doi:10.1023/A:1024906315255.
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript.
Hughes, H. A., & Luke, D. A. (1998). Heterogeneity in adjustment among children of battered women. In E. N. Jouriles, G. W. Holden, & R. Geffner (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and applied issues (pp. 185–221). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
James, L. R., & Brett, J. M. (1984). Mediators, moderators, and tests for mediation. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 307–321. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.307.
Jouriles, E. N., Bourg, W. J., & Farris, A. M. (1991). Marital adjustment and child conduct problems: A comparison of the correlation across subsamples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 354–357. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.59.2.354.
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., & O’Leary, K. D. (1989). Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 453–455. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.57.3.453.
Jouriles, E. N., Norwood, W. D., McDonald, R., Vincent, J. P., & Mahoney, A. (1996). Physical violence and other forms of marital aggression links with children’s behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 223–234. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.10.2.223.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., & Newton, T. L. (2001). Marriage and health: His and hers. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 472–503.
Kilpatrick, K. L., & Williams, L. M. (1997). Post-traumatic stress disorder in child witnesses to domestic violence. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 50, 686–696.
Kitzmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., & Kenny, E. D. (2003). Child witness of domestic violence: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 339–352. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.339.
Kouros, C. D., Merriless, C. E., & Cummings, E. M. (2008). Marital conflict and children’s emotional security in the context of parental depression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 70, 684–697. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00514.x.
Lee, M. (2001). Marital violence: Impact on children’s emotional experiences, emotional regulation, and behaviors in a post-divorce/separation situation. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 18, 137–163. doi:10.1023/A:1007650812845.
Levendosky, A. A., Bogat, G. A., & von Eye, A. (2007). New directions for research on intimate partner violence and children. European Psychologist, 12, 1–5. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.1.1.
Marks, C. R., Glass, B. A., & Horne, J. B. (2001). Effects of witnessing severe marital discord on children’s social competence and behavior problems. The Family Journal (Alexandria, Va.), 9, 94–101. doi:10.1177/1066480701092002.
McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., Ramisetty-Mikler, S., Caetano, R., & Green, C. E. (2006). Estimating the number of American children living in partner-violent families. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 137–142. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.1.137.
McEwen, B. S., & Margarinos, M. (1997). Stress effects on morphology and function of the hippocampus. In A. C. McFarlane & R. Yehuda (Eds.), Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 271–284). New York, NY: New York Academy of Sciences.
McLoyd, V. C., Harper, C. I., & Copeland, N. L. (2001). Ethnic minority status, interparental conflict, and child adjustment: Theory, research, and application. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development (pp. 98–125). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Moore, T. E., & Pepler, D. J. (1998). Correlates of adjustment in children at risk. In E. N. Jouriles, G. W. Holden, & R. Geffner (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and applied issues (pp. 157–184). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
NIH (2003). Research on children exposed to violence, PAR-03-096.
O’Leary, K. D., Malone, J., & Tyree, A. (1994). Physical aggression in early marriage: Prerelationship and relationship effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 594–602. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.3.594.
Prinz, R. J., & Feerick, M. M. (2003). Next steps in research on children exposed to domestic violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 215–219. doi:10.1023/A:1024966501143.
Rieter, S. L., & El-Sheikh, M. (1999). Does resolution of interadult conflict ameliorate children’s anger and distress across covert, verbal, and physical disputes? Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1, 1–21. doi:10.1300/J135v01n03_01.
Rossman, B. B. R. (1998). Descartes’s error and posttraumatic stress disorder: Cognition and emotion in children who are exposed to parental violence. In E. N. Jouriles, G. W. Holden, & R. Geffner (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and applied issues (pp. 223–256). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Saltzman, K. M., Holden, G. W., & Holahan, C. J. (2005). The psychobiology of children exposed to marital violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 129–139. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_12.
Schermerhorn, A. C., Cummings, A. C., DeCarlo, C. A., & Davies, P. T. (2007). Children’s influence in the marital relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(2), 259–269. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.2.259.
Smith Slep, A. M., & O’Leary, S. G. (2005). Parent and partner violence in families with young children: Rates, patterns, and connections. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 435–444. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.435.
Steinberg, L., & Avenevoli, S. (2000). The role of context in the development of psychopathology: A conceptual framework and some speculative propositions. Child Development, 71(1), 66–74.
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (Eds.). (1990). Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8, 145 families (pp. 29–48). NJ: Transaction Publications.
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52. doi:10.2307/1166137.
Thompson, R. A., Lewis, M. D., & Calkins, S. D. (2008). Reassessing emotion regulation. Child Development Perspectives, 2(3), 124–131.
Vogel, L. C. M., & Marshall, L. L. (2001). PTSD symptoms and partner abuse: Low income women at risk. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 569–584. doi:10.1023/A:1011116824613.
Whitson, S. M., & El-Sheikh, M. (2003). Moderators of family conflict and children’s adjustment and health. Journal of Emotional Abuse: Interventions, Research and Theories of Psychological Maltreatment, Trauma, and Nonphysical Aggression, 31, 47–73.
Wolchik, S. A., Sandler, I. N., Millsap, R. E., Plummer, B. A., Greene, S. M., Anderson, E. R., et al. (2002). Six-year follow-up of preventive interventions for children of divorce: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1874–1881. doi:10.1001/jama.288.15.1874.
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., et al. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843–856. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.843.
Ybarra, G. J., Wilkens, S. L., & Lieberman, A. F. (2007). The influence of domestic violence on preschooler behavior and functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 33–42. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9054-y.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mark Cummings, E., El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C.D. et al. Children and Violence: The Role of Children’s Regulation in the Marital Aggression–Child Adjustment Link. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 12, 3–15 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0042-7
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-009-0042-7