Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

What Adolescents Seeking Help Teach us About a School-Based Counseling Service

  • Published:
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Adolescents are reluctant to seek help, especially those at psychopathological risk. School may represent the ideal setting to intercept teens in trouble by reducing some barriers to help-seeking behavior; despite this, some obstacles remain difficult to overcome. The present study, involving a large sample (N = 2235) of secondary school students, aims to investigate the effectiveness of a counseling service as part of a multifaceted school-based prevention program. The counseling service is assessed by comparing students who asked for help with their peers in terms of their psychosocial characteristics, risk profiles and perceptions of the strategies that professionals adopt in order to reduce the barriers to individual counseling. Our findings reveal the capacity of individual counseling to serve the most vulnerable adolescents, with the exception of students who might be at risk of school drop-out. The effectiveness of the program implementation theory and the strength of particular strategies used to reduce barriers are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Boldero, J., & Fallon, B. (1995). Adolescent help-seeking: What do they get help for and from whom? Journal of Adolescence, 18(2), 193–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brighi, A., Melotti, G., Guarini, A., Genta, M. L., Ortega, R., Mora-Merchán, J., ... & Thompson, F. (2012). Selfesteem and loneliness in relation to cyberbullying in three European countries. In Q. Li, D. Cross, & P. K. Smith (Eds.), Cyberbullying in the global playground: Research from international perspectives (pp. 32–56). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

  • Catron, T., Harris, V. S., & Weiss, B. (1998). Post-treatment results after 2 years of services in the Vanderbilt School-Based Counseling project. In: Epstein, M. H., Kutash, K., Duchnowski, A. (Eds.), Outcomes for children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and their families: Programs and evaluation best practices (pp. 633–656). Austin, TX, US: PRO-ED, xviii.

  • Chen, H. T. (1994). Theory-driven evaluations: Need, difficulties, and options. Evaluation Practice, 15(1), 79–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, S., Schauman, O., Graham, T., Maggioni, F., Evans-Lacko, S., Bezborodovs, N., & Thornicroft, G. (2015). What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychological Medicine, 45(01), 11–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colognori, D., Esseling, P., Stewart, C., Reiss, P., Lu, F., Case, B., & Warner, C. M. (2012). Self-disclosure and mental health service use in socially anxious adolescents. School Mental Health, 4(4), 219–230.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, J., Barkham, M., Stiles, W. B., Twigg, E., Singleton, N., Evans, O., & Miles, J. N. (2007). Distribution of CORE–OM scores in a general population, clinical cut-off points and comparison with the CIS–R. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(1), 69–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corry, D. A. S., & Leavey, G. (2017). Adolescent trust and primary care: Help-seeking for emotional and psychological difficulties. Journal of Adolescence, 54, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coryn, C. L. S., Noakes, L. A., Westine, C. D., & Schröter, D. C. (2011). A systematic review of theory-driven evaluation practice from 1990 to 2009. American Journal of Evaluation, 32(2), 199–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtenay, W. H. (2000). Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men’s well-being: a theory of gender and health. Social Science & Medicine, 50(10), 1385–1401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cousins, L., Whitaker, K. J., Widmer, B., Midgley, N., Byford, S., Dubicka, B., ... & Barrett, B. (2016). Clinical characteristics associated with the prescribing of SSRI medication in adolescents with major unipolar depression. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(12), 1287–1295.

  • Cummings, J. R., Ponce, N. A., & Mays, V. M. (2010). Comparing racial/ethnic differences in mental health service use among high-need subpopulations across clinical and school-based settings. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46(6), 603–606.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • D’Avanzo, B., Barbato, A., Erzegovesi, S., Lampertico, L., Rapisarda, F., & Valsecchi, L. (2012). Formal and informal help-seeking for mental health problems. A survey of preferences of Italian students. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health: CP & EMH, 8, 47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D. L., Felner, R. D., Brand, S., & Phillips, R. S. (1996). Early adolescent self-esteem: A developmental–ecological framework and assessment strategy. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6(4), 543–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubow, E. F., Lovko, K. R. Jr., & Kausch, D. F. (1990). Demographic differences in adolescents’ health concerns and perceptions of helping agents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(1), 44–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emiliani, F., Melotti, G., & Palareti, L. (2007). Représentations sociales de la vie quotidienne et bien-être chez des adolescents italiens. Revue internationale de psychologie sociale, 20(2), 27–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, C., Mellor-Clark, J., Margison, F., Barkham, M., Audin, K., Connell, J., et al. (2000). CORE: Clinical outcomes in routine evaluation. Journal of Mental Health, 9(3), 247–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frigerio, A., Rucci, P., Goodman, R., Ammaniti, M., Carlet, O., Cavolina, P., et al. (2009). Prevalence and correlates of mental disorders among adolescents in Italy: the PrISMA study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 18(4), 217–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frydenberg, E. (1997). Adolescent coping: Theoretical and research perspectives. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garland, A. F., & Zigler, E. F. (1994). Psychological correlates of help-seeking attitudes among children and adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64(4), 586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison, E. G., Roy, I. S., & Azar, V. (1999). Responding to the mental health needs of Latino children and families through school-based services. Clinical Psychological Review, 19, 199–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, M. (2010). School-based prevention: Current status and future challenges. Effective Education, 2, 27–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grinstein-Weiss, M., Fishman, G., & Eisikovits, Z. (2005). Gender and ethnic differences in formal and informal help-seeking among Israeli adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 28(6), 765–779.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K. M., & Christensen, H. (2010). Perceived barriers and facilitators to mental health help-seeking in young people: A systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 10(1), 113.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harel, I., Elbogen-Frankowitz, S., Molcho, M., & Haviv, G. (2002). Youth in Israel: An international view of social welfare, health, and risk behaviors. Joint-Brookdale Institute and Bar-Ilan University (Hebrew), Second research findings, Jerusalem.

  • Helms, J. L. (2003). Barriers to help-seeking among 12th graders. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 14(1), 27–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzig-Anderson, K., Colognori, D., Fox, J. K., Stewart, C. E., & Warner, C. M. (2012). School-based anxiety treatments for children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21(3), 655–668.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Husky, M. M., McGuir, L., Flynn, L., Chroswski, C., & Olfson, M. (2009). Correlates of help-seeking behavior among at-risk adolescents. Child Psychiatry Human Development, 40, 15–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, C. A., Henderson, M., Frank, J. W., & Haw, S. J. (2012). An overview of prevention of multiple risk behaviour in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Public Health, 34(suppl. 1), i31–i40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaim, Z., & Romi, S. (2015). Adolescents at risk and their willingness to seek help from youth care workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 53, 17–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhl, J., Jarkon-Horlick, L., & Morrissey, R. F. (1997). Measuring barriers to help-seeking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26(6), 637–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kushner, M. G., & Sher, K. J. (1991). The relation of treatment fearfulness and psychological service utilization: An overview. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22(3), 196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lalor, K., O’Dwyer, S., & McCrann, D. (2006). Review of a community-based youth counselling service in Ireland. Children and Youth Services Review, 28(3), 325–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leavey, G., Rothi, D., & Paul, R. (2011). Trust, autonomy and relationships: the help-seeking preferences of young people in secondary level schools in London (UK). Journal of Adolescence, 34(4), 685–693.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey, C. R., & Kalafat, J. (1998). Adolescents’ views of preferred helper characteristics and barriers to seeking help from school-based adults. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 9(3), 171–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahalik, J. R., Burns, S. M., & Syzdek, M. (2007). Masculinity and perceived normative health behaviors as predictors of men’s health behaviors. Social Science & Medicine, 64(11), 2201–2209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marchetti, A., Bracaglia, E., Cavalli, G., & Valle, A. (2013). Comportamenti a rischio e autolesivi in adolescenza. Il questionario RTSHIA di Vrouva, Fonagy, Fearon, Roussow. Franco Angeli, Milano.

  • Masia-Warner, C., Fisher, P. H., Shrout, P. E., Rathor, S., & Klein, R. G. (2007). Treating adolescents with social anxiety disorder in school: An attention control trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(7), 676–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masia-Warner, C., Klein, R. G., Dent, H. C., Fisher, P. H., Alvir, J., Albano, A. M., et al. (2005). School-based intervention for adolescents with social anxiety disorder: Results of a controlled study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(6), 707–722.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masia-Warner, C., Nangle, D. W., & Hansen, D. J. (2006). Bringing evidence-based child mental health services to the schools: General issues and specific populations. Education and Treatment of Children, 29, 165–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melotti, G., & Passini, S. (2002). L’applicazione ad un gruppo di adolescenti italiani del Self-esteem Questionnaire (SEQ). Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 238, 59–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Möller-Leimkühler, A. M. (2002). Barriers to help-seeking by men: a review of sociocultural and clinical literature with particular reference to depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 71(1), 1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, N. T., & Robinson, M. (2003). Students’ help-seeking behaviors by gender, racial background, and student status. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 37(2), 151–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palareti, L., Mameli, C., & Biolcati, R. (2014). A proposal for a theory-driven evaluation applied to a school health promotion project. What theories guide the staff? Psicologia clinica dello sviluppo, 18(3), 491–490.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raviv, A., Raviv, A., Vago-Gefen, I., & Fink, A. S. (2009). The personal service gap: Factors affecting adolescents’ willingness to seek help. Journal of Adolescence, 32(3), 483–499.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raviv, A., Sills, R., Raviv, A., & Wilansky, P. (2000). Adolescents’ help-seeking behaviour: The difference between self-and other-referral. Journal of adolescence, 23(6), 721–740.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rickwood, D. J., & Braithwaite, V. A. (1994). Social-psychological factors affecting help-seeking for emotional problems. Social Science & Medicine, 39(4), 563–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rickwood, D. J., Deane, F. P., & Wilson, C. J. (2007). When and how do young people seek professional help for mental health problems? The Medical Journal of Australia, 187(7 Supplement), S35–S39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, S. L., French, R. S., Henderson, C., Ougrin, D., Slade, M., & Moran, P. (2014). Help-seeking behaviour and adolescent self-harm: A systematic review. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. doi:10.1177/0004867414555718.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders, S. M., Resnick, M. D., Hoberman, H. M., & Blum, R. W. (1994). Formal help-seeking behavior of adolescents identifying themselves as having mental health problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(5), 718–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawyer, M. G., Arney, F. M., Baghurst, P. A., Clark, J. J., Graetz, B. W., Kosky, R. J., et al. (2000). The mental health of young people in Australia. Canberra: Mental Health and Special Programs Branch, Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care.

  • Schonert-Reichl, K. A., & Muller, J. R. (1996). Correlates of help-seeking in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25(6), 705–731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Offer, D., & Howard, K. I. (2013). Seeking help from informal and formal resources during adolescence: Sociodemographic and psychological correlates. Adolescent Psychiatry: Developmental and Clinical Studies, 20, 165–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sears, H. A. (2004). Adolescents in rural communities seeking help: who reports problems and who sees professionals? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 396–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheffield, J. K., Fiorenza, E., & Sofronoff, K. (2004). Adolescents’ Willingness to Seek Psychological Help: Promoting and Preventing Factors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(6), 495–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slone, M., Meir, Y., & Tarrasch, R. (2013). Individual differences in referral for help for severe emotional difficulties in adolescence. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(11), 1854–1861.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sourander, A., Helstelä, L., Ristkari, T., Ikäheimo, K., Helenius, H., & Piha, J. (2001). Child and adolescent mental health service use in Finland. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(6), 294–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stefl, M. E., & Prosperi, D. C. (1985). Barriers to mental health service utilization. Community Mental Health Journal, 21(3), 167–178.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sweeting, H., Young, R., West, P., & Der, G. (2006). Peer victimization and depression in early–mid adolescence: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(3), 577–594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taras, H. L. (2004). School-based mental health services. Pediatrics, 113, 1839–1845.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trujillo, A., Feixas, G., Bados, A., García-Grau, E., Salla, M., Medina, J. C., et al. (2016). Psychometric properties of the spanish version of the clinical Outcomes in routine evaluation—Outcome Measure. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 12, 1457.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vanheusden, K., Mulder, C. L., van der Ende, J., van Lenthe, F. J., Mackenbach, J. P., & Verhulst, F. C. (2008). Young adults face major barriers to seeking help from mental health services. Patient Education and Counseling, 73(1), 97–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vostanis, P., Humphrey, N., Fitzgerald, N., Deighton, J., & Wolpert, M. (2013). How do schools promote emotional well-being among their pupils? Findings from a national scoping survey of mental health provision in English schools. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18, 151–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vrouva, I., Fonagy, P., Fearon, P. R., & Roussow, T. (2010). The risk-taking and self-harm inventory for adolescents: Development and psychometric evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 22(4), 852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, J., Barlow, J., & Stewart-Brown, S. (2003). A systematic review of universal approaches to mental health promotion in schools. Health Education, 103(4), 197–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2007). Adolescents, social support and help-seeking behaviour: an international literature review and program consultation with recommendations for action/Gary Barker. Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development.

  • Wilson, C. J., Deane, F. P., Ciarrochi, J., & Rickwood, D. (2007). Measuring help-seeking intentions: Properties of the general help seeking questionnaire. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy/Revue canadienne de counseling et de psychothérapie, 39(1), 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, C. J., Rickwood, D., Ciarrochi, J. V., & Deane, F. P. (2002). Adolescent barriers to seeking professional psychololgical help for personal-emotional and suicidal problems. In:Suicide Prevention Australia 9th Annual Conference, June 2002 (pp. 1–8).

  • Wilson, S. J., & Lipsey, M. W. (2007). School-based interventions for aggressive and disruptive behavior: Update of a meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(2), S130–S143.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, P., Hoven, C. W., Cohen, P., Liu, X., Moore, R. E., Tiet, Q., & Bird, H. R. (2001). Factors associated with use of mental health services for depression by children and adolescents. Psychiatric Services, 52(2), 189–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This study was funded by the Department of Education Studies; a little funding was provided by the Municipality of Ferrara city that provided funding for a little part of the wider evaluation project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Education Studies, University of Bologna, Via Filippo Re 6, 40126, Bologna, Italy

    Roberta Biolcati, Laura Palareti & Consuelo Mameli

Authors
  1. Roberta Biolcati
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura Palareti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Consuelo Mameli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roberta Biolcati.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Biolcati and Palareti declares that he/she has no conflict of interest. Mameli has received two grants from the Department with a little contribution by the Municipality of Ferrara city.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Biolcati, R., Palareti, L. & Mameli, C. What Adolescents Seeking Help Teach us About a School-Based Counseling Service. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 35, 45–56 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-017-0503-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-017-0503-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation