Abstract
The present study investigated the moderating effect of adolescent demographic variables in the longitudinal associations among different types of sexting, mental health (i.e., depression, self-harm, subjective health complaints), and sexual risk behaviors. There were 1113 adolescents (ages 14–17 years; Mage = 16.36; SDage = .81; 50% female) from six high schools located in the United States included in this study. Adolescents completed questionnaires on their sexting behaviors, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors during the ninth grade; in tenth grade, they completed questionnaires on mental health and sexual risk behaviors. Non-consensual sexting and pressured sexting were both related positively to each of the mental health variables and sexual risk behaviors. The relationship between non-consensual sexting and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and sexual minorities. Similar patterns were found for pressured sexting, non-suicidal self-harm, and subjective health complaints. The relationships between pressured sexting and sexual risk behaviors were stronger for girls, ethnic minorities, those adolescents with disabilities, and those who identified as sexual minorities. Research focused on the relationships among different types of sexting, mental health, and sexual risk behaviors is important as such research facilitates the development of evidence-based recommendations for sexting harm prevention and sexual education programs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Benotsch, E. G., Snipes, D. J., Martin, A. M., & Bull, S. S. (2013). Sexting, substance use, and sexual risk behavior in young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.06.011
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. (2017). Sexting as the mirror on the wall: Body-esteem attribution, media models, and objectified-body consciousness. Journal of Adolescence, 61, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.10.006
Bianchi, D., Morelli, M., Nappa, M. R., Baiocco, R., & Chirumbolo, A. A. (2018). Bad romance: Sexting motivations and teen dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(13–14), 6029–6049. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518817037
Cheng, M. M., & Udry, J. R. (2002). Sexual behaviors of physically disabled adolescents in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00400-1
Chong, E. S. K., Zhang, Y., Mak, W. W. S., & Pang, I. H. Y. (2015). Social media as social capital of LGB individuals in Hong Kong: Its relations with group membership, stigma, and mental well-being. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(1–2), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9699-2
Christie, D., & Viner, R. (2005). Adolescent development. British Medical Journal, 330(7486), 301–304.
Dahlqvist, H., & Gillander Gådin, K. (2020). Swedish teens’ comprehension of sexting and explicit sexual images and consequences for well-being. European Journal of Public Health, 30(Supplement_5). https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckaa165.092
Dake, J. A., Price, J. H., & Maziar, L. (2012). Prevalence and correlates of sexting behavior in adolescents. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2012.650959
Del Rey, R., Ojeda, M., Casas, J. A., Mora-Merchán, J. A., & Elipe, P. (2019). Sexting among adolescents: The emotional impact and influence of the need for popularity. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01828
Döring, N. (2014). Consensual sexting among adolescents: Risk prevention through abstinence education or safer sexting? Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2014-1-9
Döring, N., & Mohseni, M. R. (2018). Are online sexual activities and sexting good for adults’ sexual well-being? Results from a national online survey. International Journal of Sexual Health, 30(3), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2018.1491921
Drouin, M., Ross, J., & Tobin, E. (2015). Sexting: A new, digital vehicle for intimate partner aggression? Computers in Human Behavior, 50, 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.001
Englander, E. (2012). Low risk associated with most teenage sexting: A study of 617 18-year-olds. MARC Research Reports. Retrieved from: https://vc.bridgew.edu/marc_reports/6
Esmail, S., Darry, K., Walter, A., & Knupp, H. (2010). Attitudes and perceptions towards disability and sexuality. Disability and Rehabilitation, 32(14), 1148–1155. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280903419277
Ferrerr-Urbina, R., & Leal-Soto, F. (2019). Scale of risk behaviors, associated with STI/HIV-AIDS, for young Chileans. In E. Soriano, C. Sleeter, M. Antonia Casanova, R. M. Zapata, & V. C. Cala (Eds.), The value of education and health for a global, transcultural world. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences, 60, 800–809. Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2019.04.02.99
Ferrer-Urbina, R., Mena-Chamorro, P., Halty, M., & Sepúlveda-Páez, G. (2022). Psychological factors and sexual risk behaviors: A multidimensional model based on the Chilean population. International Journal of Environmental Research on Public Health, 19(15), 9293. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159293
Frankel, A. S., Bass, S. B., Patterson, F., Dai, T., & Brown, D. (2018). Sexting, risk behavior, and mental health in adolescents: An examination of 2015 Pennsylvania Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data. Journal of School Health, 88(3), 190–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12596
Fryar, C. D., Hirsch, R., Porter, K. S., Kottiri, B., Brody, D. J., & Louis, T. (2007). Drug use and sexual behaviors reported by adults: United States, 1999–2002. Advance Data. National Center for Health Statistics, 384, 1–14.
Gámez-Guadix, M., de Santisteban, P., & Resett, S. (2017). Sexting among Spanish adolescents: Prevalence and personality profiles. Psicothema, 29(1), 29–34. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2016.222
Gámez-Guadix, M., & Mateos-Pérez, E. (2019). Longitudinal and reciprocal relationships between sexting, online sexual solicitations, and cyberbullying among minors. Computers in Human Behavior, 94, 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.004
Gassó, A. M., Mueller-Johnson, K., & Montiel, I. (2020). Sexting, online sexual victimization, and psychopathology correlates by sex: Depression, anxiety, and global psychopathology. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031018
Haugland, S., & Wold, B. (2001). Subjective health complaints in adolescence–Reliability and validity of survey methods. Journal of Adolescence, 24(5), 611–624. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2000.0393
Hengen, S., & Weaver, A. D. (2018). Post-secondary students with disabilities: Increasing self-advocacy through educational plan participation. The School Psychologist, 72(2), 7–18.
Hinde, R. A. (1979). Towards understanding relationships. Academic Press.
Houck, C. D., Barker, D., Rizzo, C., Hancock, E., Norton, A., & Brown, L. K. (2014). Sexting and sexual behavior in at-risk adolescents. Pediatrics, 133(2), e276–e282. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1157
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hudson, H. K., & Marshall, S. A. (2016). Sexty southerners: Sexting content and behaviors among selected southern undergraduates. The Health Educator, 48(1), 34–43.
Karaian, L. (2014). Policing ‘Sexting’: Responsibilization, respectability and sexual subjectivity in child protection/crime prevention responses to teenagers’ digital sexual expression. Theoretical Criminology, 18(3), 282–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480613504331
Kernsmith, P. D., Victor, B. G., & Smith-Darden, J. P. (2018). Online, offline, and over the line: Coercive sexting among adolescent dating partners. Youth & Society, 50(7), 891–904. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X19764040
Klettke, B., Mellor, D., Silva-Myles, L., Clancy, E., & Sharma, M. K. (2018). Sexting and mental health: A study of Indian and Australian young adults. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2018-2-2
Kosenko, K., Luurs, G., & Binder, A. R. (2017). Sexting and sexual behavior, 2011–2015: A critical review and meta-analysis of a growing literature. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(3), 141–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12187
Levine, D. (2013). Sexting: A terrifying health risk or the new normal for young adults? Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(3), 257–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.003
Maart, S., & Jelsma, J. (2010). The sexual behaviour of physically disabled adolescents. Disability & Rehabilitation, 32(6), 438–443. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638280902846368
Machimbarrena, J. M., Calvete, E., Fernández-González, L., Álvarez-Bardón, A., Álvarez-Fernández, L., & González-Cabrera, J. (2018). Internet risks: An overview of victimization in cyberbullying, cyber dating abuse, sexting, online grooming and problematic internet use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), 2471. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15112471
Medrano, J. L. J., Rosales, F. L., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018). Assessing the links of sexting, cybervictimization, depression, and suicidal ideation among university students. Archives of Suicide Research, 22(1), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2017.1304304
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
Morelli, M., Bianchi, D., & Baiocco, R. (2016). Sexting, psychological distress and dating violence among adolescents and young adults. Psicothema, 28(2), 137–142. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.193
Mori, C., Cooke, J. E., Temple, J. R., Anh, L., Lu, Y., Anderson, N., Rash, C., & Madigan, S. (2020). The prevalence of sexting behaviors among emerging adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(4), 1103–1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01656-4
Mori, C., Temple, J. R., Browne, D., & Madigan, S. (2019). Association of sexting with sexual behaviors and mental health among adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(8), 770–779. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.1658
Muehlenkamp, J. J., Claes, L., Havertape, L., & Plener, P. L. (2012). International prevalence of adolescent non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6, 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-6-10
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998). Mplus [Computer Software]. Author.
Naezer, M. (2018). Sexy adventures: An ethnography of youth, sexuality and social media. Doctoral dissertation, Radboud University.
Naezer, M., & Oosterhout, L. (2021). Only sluts love sexting: Youth, sexual norms and non-consensual sharing of digital sexual images. Journal of Gender Studies, 30(1), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1799767
Needham, J. (2021). Sending nudes: Intent and risk associated with ‘sexting’ as understood by gay adolescent boys. Sexuality and Culture, 25(2), 396–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12119-020-09775-9
Neufeld, J. A., Klingbeil, F., Bryen, D. N., Silverman, B., & Thomas, A. (2002). Adolescent sexuality and disability. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 13(4), 857–873. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1047-9651(02)00045-1
Ojeda, M., & Del Rey, R. (2021). Lines of action for sexting prevention and intervention: A systematic review. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(3), 1659–1687.
Ojeda, M., Del Rey, R., Walrave, M., & Vandesbosch, H. (2020). Sexting in adolescents: Prevalence and behaviours. Comunicar, 28(64), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.3916/C64-2020-01
Ouytsel, J. (2020). A decade of sexting research: Are we any wiser? JAMA Pediatrics, 174(2), 204. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.4562
Ouytsel, J., Gool, E., Ponnet, K., & Walrave, M. (2014). Brief report: The association between adolescents’ characteristics and engagement in sexting. Journal of Adolescence, 37(8), 1387–1391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.10.004
Ouytsel, J. V., Gool, E. V., Walrave, M., Ponnet, K., & Peeters, E. (2017). Sexting: Adolescents’ perceptions of the applications used for, motives for, and consequences of sexting. Journal of Youth Studies, 20(4), 446–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2016.1241865
Ouytsel, J., Punyanunt-Carter, N. M., Walrave, M., & Ponnet, K. (2020). Sexting within young adults’ dating and romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36, 55–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.007
Perkins, A. B., Becker, J. V., Tehee, M., & Mackelprang, E. (2013). Sexting behaviors among college students: Cause for concern? International Journal of Sexual Health, 26(2), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2013.841792
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.
Ragona, A., Mesce, M. M., Cimnio, S., & Cerniglia, L. (2023). Motivations, behaviors and expectancies of sexting: The role of defensive strategies and social media addiction in a sample of adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research in Public Health, 20, 1805. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijperph20031805
Rasberry, C. N., Lowry, R., Johns, M., Robin, L., Dunville, R., Pampati, S., Dittus, P. J., & Balaji, A. (2018). Sexual risk behavior differences among sexual minority high school students-United States, 2015 and 2017. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 67(36), 1007–1011. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6736a3
Rice, E., Gibbs, J., Winetrobe, H., Rhoades, H., Plant, A., Montoya, J., & Kordic, T. (2014). Sexting and sexual behavior among middle school students. Pediatrics, 134(1), e21–e28. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2991
Sansone, R. A., Wederman, M. W., & Sanson, L. A. (1998). The self-harm inventory (SHI): Development of a scale of identifying self-destructive behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54(7), 973–983. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4679(199811)54:7%3c973::aid-jclp11%3e3.0.co;2-h
Sasaki, P. Y., & Kameoka, V. A. (2009). Ethnic variations in prevalence of high-risk sexual behaviors among Asian and Pacific Islander adolescents in Hawaii. American Journal of Public Health, 99(10), 1186–1892. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.133785
Senn, T. (2013). Sexual risk behavior. In M. D. Gellman & J. R. Turner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_670
Seth, P., Lang, D. L., Diclemente, R. J., Braxton, N. D., Crosby, R. A., Brown, L. K., Hadley, W., & Donenberg, G. R. (2012). Gender differences in sexual risk behaviours and sexually transmissible infections among adolescents in mental health treatment. Sex Health, 9(3), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH10098
Spielberger, C. D. (2004). Encyclopedia of applied psychology. Elsevier.
Steinberg, D. B., Simon, V. A., Victor, B. G., Kernsmith, P. D., & Smith-Darden, J. P. (2019). Onset trajectories of sexting and other sexual behaviors across high school: A longitudinal growth mixture modeling approach. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(8), 2321–2331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-1414-9
Stokes, J. K. (2014). The indecent internet: Resisting unwarranted internet exceptionalism combating revenge porn. Berkeley Technology of Law Journal, 29, 929–952.
Strassberg, D. S., McKinnon, R. K., Sustaita, M. A., & Rullo, J. (2013). Sexting by high school students: An exploratory and descriptive study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 15–21.
Symons, K., Ponnet, K., Walrave, M., & Heirman, W. (2018). Sexting scripts in adolescent relationships: Is sexting becoming the norm? New Media & Society, 20(10), 3836–3857. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818761869
Temple, J. R., Le, V. D., van den Berg, P., Ling, Y., Paul, J. A., & Temple, B. W. (2014). Brief report: Teen sexting and psychosocial health. Journal of Adolescence, 37(1), 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.10.008
Trub, L., & Starks, T. J. (2017). Insecure attachments: Attachment, emotional regulation, Sexting and condomless sex among women in relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 140–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.052
Wachs, S., Junger, M., & Sittichai, R. (2015). Traditional, cyber and combined bullying roles: Differences in risky online and offline activities. Societies, 5, 109–135. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010109
Walker, K., & Sleath, E. (2017). A systematic review of the current knowledge regarding revenge pornography and non-consensual sharing of sexually explicit media. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 36(2017), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.06.010
West, J. H., Lister, C. E., Hall, P. C., Crookston, B. T., Snow, P. R., Zvietcovich, M. E., & West, R. P. (2014). Sexting among Peruvian adolescents. BMC Public Health, 14, 811. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-811
Wilkinson, Y., Whitfield, C., Hannigan, S., Azam Ali, P., & Hayter, M. A. (2016). Qualitative meta-synthesis of young peoples’ experiences of ‘sexting.’ British Journal of School Nursing, 11(4), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjsn.2016.11.4.183
Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2011). Sexting: A typology. Crimes Against Children Research Center. Retrieved from: https://scholars.unh.edu/ccrc/48/
Woodward, V. H., Evans, M., & Brooks, M. (2017). Social and psychological factors of rural youth sexting: An examination of gender-specific models. Deviant Behavior, 38(4), 461–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1197020
Ybarra, M. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). “Sexting” and its relation to sexual activity and sexual risk behavior in a national survey of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(6), 757–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.07.012
Yeung, T. H., Horyniak, D. R., Vella, A. M., Hellard, M. E., & Lim, M. S. C. (2014). Prevalence, correlates and attitudes towards sexting among young people in Melbourne, Australia. Sexual Health, 11(4), 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH14032
Funding
The authors have not disclosed any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have not disclosed any competing interests.
Ethical approval and Informed consent
The current study was approved by Institutional Review Board of the first author’s previous university affiliation, and all procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institutional and National Research Committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wright, M.F., Wachs, S. Longitudinal Associations between Different Types of Sexting, Adolescent Mental Health, and Sexual Risk Behaviors: Moderating Effects of Gender, Ethnicity, Disability Status, and Sexual Minority Status. Arch Sex Behav 53, 1115–1128 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02764-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02764-7