Abstract
In this study, we examined the patterns of sex differences in men and women married to each other in five cultures (China, Russia, Turkey, UK, and the U.S.) to look for universal patterns in behavioral dimorphisms and for cultural variability in those patterns. Over 400 couples in each cultural group completed the 235-item Marriage and Relationship Questionnaire on various aspects of marriage, appropriately translated for each culture. Sex differences were anticipated in responses related to female choosiness, labor performed, emotional expressiveness, interest in sex, physical attractiveness, and jealousy. To measure male–female differences in each culture, t-tests were utilized, and effect sizes were calculated. Significant sex differences (p < .05, two-tailed) emerged in all six areas examined, although cultural differences were also seen in the patterns. For example, on items relevant to female choosiness, women in most, but not all, cultures were more likely than their husbands to endorse these statements: “I have thought of divorcing my spouse” and “My parents played a role in choosing my spouse.” In China, where scores on emotional expressiveness were low, sex differences disappeared in the category related to emotions. Results suggest that long-term marriage exhibits a balance between homogamy and dimorphism serving reproductive interests. Moreover, culture may moderate this balance for particular sex differences.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Archer, J. (2006). The importance of theory for evaluating evidence on sex differences. American Psychologist, 61, 638–639.
Brase, G. L., Caprar, D. V., & Voracek, M. (2004). Sex differences in response to relationship threats in England and Romania. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21, 763–778.
Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.
Buss, D. M. (2003). Evolution of desire. New York: Basic Books.
Buss, D. M., Larsen, R., Westen, D., & Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science, 3, 251–255.
Buunk, B. P., Angleitner, A., Oubaid, V., & Buss, D. M. (1996). Sex differences in jealousy in evolutionary and cultural perspective: Tests from the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States. Psychological Science, 7, 359–363.
Canary, D. J., & Emmers-Sommer, T. M. (1997). Sex and gender differences in personal relationships. New York: Guilford Press.
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev. ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Cowan, C. P., Cowan, P. A., Coie, L., & Coie, J. D. (1978). Becoming a family: The impact of a first child’s birth on the couple’s relationship. In W. B. Miller & L. F. Newman (Eds.), The first child and family formation (pp. 296–324). UNC at Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center.
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1983). Sex, evolution and behavior (2nd ed.). Boston: Willard Grant Press.
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of Man, and selection in relation to sex (2 vols.). London: John Murray.
de Souza, A. A. L., Pereira, M. P., Taira, J. T., & Otta, E. (2006). Emotional and sexual jealousy as a function of sex and sexual orientation in a Brazilian sample. Psychological Reports, 98, 529–535.
Eagly, A. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145–158.
Ekehammer, B. (1974). Sex differences in self-reported anxiety for different situations and modes of response. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 15, 154–160.
Ekehammer, B., Magnusson, D., & Ricklander, L. (1974). An interactionist approach to the study of anxiety: An analysis of an S-R inventory applied to an adolescent sample. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 15, 4–14.
Ellis, L. (1986). Evidence of neuroandrogenic etiology of sex roles from a combined analysis of human, nonhuman primate, and nonprimate mammalian studies. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 519–551.
Friedl, E. (1975). Women and men: An anthropologist’s view. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Furnham, A. (2009). Sex differences in mate selection preferences. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 262–267.
Gutmann, D. (1972). Men, women, and the parental imperative. Commentary, 56, 59–64.
Hill, C., Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. (1976). Breakups before marriage: The end of 103 affairs. Journal of Social Issues, 32, 147–168.
Hoyenga, K. B., & Hoyenga, K. T. (1979). The question of sex differences: Psychological, cultural, and biological issues. Boston: Little, Brown.
Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 581–592.
İmamoğlu, E. O., & Yasak, Y. (1997). Dimensions of marital relationships as perceived by Turkish husbands and wives. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 123, 211–232.
Jacklin, C. N., Maccoby, E. E., & Doering, C. H. (1983). Neonatal sex-steroid hormones and timidity in 6–18-month-old boys and girls. Developmental Psychobiology, 16, 163–168.
Jenkins, J. L. (2006). An investigation of marital satisfaction: Assortative mating and personality similarity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Detroit Mercy, Detroit, Michigan.
Kanin, E. J., Davidson, K. R., & Scheck, S. R. (1970). A research note on male-female differentials in the experience of heterosexual love. Journal of Sex Research, 6, 64–72.
Kephart, W. M. (1967). Some correlates of romantic love. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 29, 470–474.
Li, N. P., Bailey, J. M., Kenrick, D. T., & Linsenmeier, J. A. W. (2002). The necessities and luxuries of mate preferences: Testing the trade-offs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 947–955.
Lippa, R. A. (2007). The preferred traits of mates in a cross-national study of heterosexual and homosexual men and women: An examination of biological and cultural influences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 193–208.
Lippa, R. A. (2008). Sex differences and sexual orientation differences in personality: Findings from the BBC internet survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 173–187.
Lippa, R. A. (2010). Sex differences in sex drive, sociosexuality, and height across 53 nations: Testing evolutionary and social structural theories. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 619–636.
Lucas, T. W., Parkhill, M. R., Wendorf, C. A., İmamoğlu, E. O., Weisfeld, C. C., Weisfeld, G. E., & Shen, J. (2008). Cultural and evolutionary components of marital satisfaction: A multidimensional assessment of measurement invariance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39, 109–123.
Mealey, L. (2000). Sex differences: Developmental and evolutionary strategies. San Diego: Academic Press.
Miller, G. (2001). The mating mind. London: Vintage.
Murdock, G. P. (1965). Culture and society. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Rohner, R. P. (1976). Sex differences in aggression: Phylogenetic and enculturation perspectives. Ethos, 4, 57–72.
Russell, R. J. H., & Wells, P. A. (1986). Marriage questionnaire, unpublished booklet.
Russell, R. J. H., & Wells, P. A. (1991). Personality similarity and quality of marriage. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 407–412.
Russell, R. J. H., & Wells, P. A. (1993). Marriage and relationship questionnaire: MARQ handbook. Kent, England: Hodder and Stoughton.
Russell, R. J. H., Wells, P. A., & Butovskaya, M. (2003). Russian marriage and relationship questionnaire. Translated by M. Butovskaya, unpublished booklet.
Russell, R. J. H., Wells, P. A., & Imamoğlu, E. O. (1989). Evlilik anketi [Revised Turkish marriage questionnaire]. Middle East Technical University, unpublished booklet.
Russell, R. J. H., Wells, P. A., & Shen, J. (1999). Chinese marriage and relationship questionnaire. Translated by J. Shen, unpublished booklet.
Russell, R. J. H., Wells, P. A., Weisfeld, C. C., & Weisfeld, G. E. (1987). American marriage and relationship questionnaire, unpublished booklet.
Russell, R. J. H., Wells, P. A., Weisfeld, G. E., & Weisfeld, C. C. (1992). Differences between husbands and wives. In J. M. G. van der Dennen (Ed.), The nature of the sexes: The sociobiology of sex differences and the battle of the sexes (pp. 137–148). Groningen: Origin Press.
Sagarin, B. J. (2005). Reconsidering evolved sex differences in jealousy: Comment on Harris (2003). Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 62–75.
Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of waist-to-hip ratio and female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307.
Slatcher, R. B., & Vazire, S. (2009). Effects of global and contextualized personality on relationship satisfaction. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 624–633.
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of Man (pp. 136–179). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
van den Berghe, P. L. (1980). The human family: A sociobiological look. In J. S. Lockard (Ed.), The evolution of human social behavior (pp. 67–85). New York: Elsevier.
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247–252.
Weisfeld, C. C., & Karana, D. (2003, June). Sex differences in married adults. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, Lincoln, NE.
Weisfeld, G. E., Nowak, N. T., Lucas, T. W., Weisfeld, C. C., İmamoğlu, E. O., Butovskaya, M., et al. (in press). Do women seek humorousness in men because it signals intelligence? A cross-cultural test. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research.
Wendorf, C. A., Lucas, T. W., İmamoğlu, E. O., Weisfeld, C. C., & Weisfeld, G. E. (2011). Does the number of children impact marital satisfaction after accounting for other marital demographics? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42, 340–354.
Wiederman, M. W., & Kendall, E. (1999). Evolution, sex, and jealousy: Investigation with a sample from Sweden. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 121–128.
Acknowledgments
Some of these data were presented in 2003 at the meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society in Lincoln, NE, and a version of the article was presented in poster format in 2009 at the International Anthropological Congress of Aleš Hrdlička in Prague, Czech Republic.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Weisfeld, C.C., Dillon, L.M., Nowak, N.T. et al. Sex Differences and Similarities in Married Couples: Patterns Across and Within Cultures. Arch Sex Behav 40, 1165–1172 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9790-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9790-9