Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Prevalence of Traumatic Events and Symptoms of PTSD Among South Africans Receiving an HIV Test

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
AIDS and Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We studied posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among a community sample of 500 persons seeking an HIV test. The majority of participants (62.2%) indicated that they had experienced at least one index event that qualified for PTSD, even though a small proportion (5%) actually met the diagnostic criteria for the disorder. Of those who reported an index event, 25 (8.04%) met the diagnostic criteria for PTSD while 286 (91.96%) did not. On average about one-third of participants who did not meet the criteria for PTSD endorsed PTSD symptoms whereas more than three quarters of those who met the full criteria did so. No demographic factors were associated with PTSD caseness, except number of traumatic events. These results are discussed in the context of the need to address traumatic events and PTSD among persons who undergo HIV testing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Milanak ME, Miller MW, Keyes KM, Friedman MJ. National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(5):537–47.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Machtinger EL, Wilson TC, Haberer JE, Weiss DS. Psychological trauma and PTSD in HIV-positive women: a meta-analysis. AIDS Behav. 2012;16(8):2091–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Hutton HE, Treisman GJ, Hunt WR, Fishman M, Kendig N, Swetz A, Lyketsos CG. HIV risk behaviors and their relationship to posttraumatic stress disorder among women prisoners. Psychiatr Serv. 2001;52(4):508–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Bao A, Colby DJ, Trang T, Le BQ, Dinh TD, Nguyen QH, Hoang HT, Friedman MR, Stall R. Correlates of HIV testing among transgender women in Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam. AIDS Behav. 2016;20(3):371–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Weine S, Bahromov M, Loue S, Owens L. Trauma exposure, PTSD, and HIV sexual risk behaviors among labor migrants from Tajikistan. AIDS Behav. 2012;16(6):1659–69.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52(12):1048–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Lukaschek K, Kruse J, Emeny RT, Lacruz ME, von Eisenhart Rothe A, Ladwig KH. Lifetime traumatic experiences and their impact on PTSD: a general population study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(4):525–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Ehlers CL, Kim C, Gilder DA, Stouffer GM, Caetano R, Yehuda R. Lifetime history of traumatic events in a young adult Mexican American sample: relation to substance dependence, affective disorder, acculturation stress, and PTSD. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;31(83):79–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Frissa S, Hatch SL, Gazard B, Fear NT, Hotopf M, SELCoH Study Team. Trauma and current symptoms of PTSD in a South East London community. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013;48(8):1199–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Edmondson D, Richardson S, Fausett JK, Falzon L, Howard VJ, Kronish IM. Prevalence of PTSD in survivors of stroke and transient ischemic attack: a meta-analytic review. PLoS ONE. 2013;8(6):e66435.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Andrykowski MA, Cordova MJ, Studts JL, Miller TW. Posttraumatic stress disorder after treatment for breast cancer: prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) as a screening instrument. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66(3):586.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Smith MY, Redd W, DuHamel K, Vickberg SJ, Ricketts P. Validation of the PTSD checklist-civilian version in survivors of bone marrow transplantation. J Trauma Stress. 1999;12(3):485–99.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Kelly B, Raphael B, Judd F, Perdices M, Kernutt G, Burnett P, Dunne M, Burrows G. Posttraumatic stress disorder in response to HIV infection. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1998;20(6):345–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Kimerling R, Calhoun KS, Forehand R, Armistead L. Traumatic stress in HIV-infected women. AIDS Educ Prev. 1999;11(4):321.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Martinez A, Israelski D, Walker C, Koopman C. Posttraumatic stress disorder in women attending human immunodeficiency virus outpatient clinics. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2002;16(6):283–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Safren SA, Gershuny BS, Hendriksen E. Symptoms of posttraumatic stress and death anxiety in persons with HIV and medication adherence difficulties. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2003;17(12):657–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Olley BO, Seedat S, Stein DJ. Persistence of psychiatric disorders in a cohort of HIV/AIDS patients in South Africa: a 6-month follow-up study. J Psychosom Res. 2006;61(4):479–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Stein DJ, Seedat S, Herman A, Moomal H, Heeringa SG, Kessler RC, Williams DR. Lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in South Africa. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;192(2):112–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Olley BO, Zeier MD, Seedat S, Stein DJ. Post-traumatic stress disorder among recently diagnosed patients with HIV/AIDS in South Africa. AIDS Care. 2005;17(5):550–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Kagee A, Saal W, De Villiers L, Sefatsa M, Bantjes J. The prevalence of common mental disorders among South Africans seeking HIV testing. AIDS Behav. 2016;17:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  21. American Psychiatric Association. DSM 5. American Psychiatric Association; 2013.

  22. Atwoli L, Stein DJ, Williams DR, Mclaughlin KA, Petukhova M, Kessler RC, Koenen KC. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in South Africa: analysis from the South African Stress and Health Study. BMC Psychiatry. 2013;13(1):1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Africa Fact Check, 2016. https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-south-africas-201516-crime-statistics/.

  24. Herman AA, Stein DJ, Seedat S, Heeringa SG, Moomal H, Williams DR. The South African Stress and Health (SASH) study: 12-month and lifetime prevalence of common mental disorders. SAMJ. S Afr Med J. 2009;99(5):339–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. McLaughlin KA, Koenen KC, Friedman MJ, Ruscio AM, Karam EG, Shahly V, Stein DJ, Hill ED, Petukhova M, Alonso J, Andrade LH. Subthreshold posttraumatic stress disorder in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;77(4):375–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Breslau N, Kessler RC, Chilcoat HD, Schultz LR, Davis GC, Andreski P. Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55(7):626–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Pearson CR, Kaysen D, Belcourt A, Stappenbeck CA, Zhou C, Smartlowit-Briggs ML, Whitefoot MP. Post-traumatic stress disorder and HIV risk behaviors among rural American Indian/Alaska Native women. Am Indian Alsk Native Mental Health Res. 2015;22(3):1.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Dekel R, Monson CM. Military-related post-traumatic stress disorder and family relations: current knowledge and future directions. Aggress Viol Behav. 2010;15(4):303–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Evans L, Cowlishaw S, Forbes D, Parslow R, Lewis V. Longitudinal analyses of family functioning in veterans and their partners across treatment. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2010;78(5):611.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Vranceanu AM, Safren SA, Lu M, Coady WM, Skolnik PR, Rogers WH, Wilson IB. The relationship of post-traumatic stress disorder and depression to antiretroviral medication adherence in persons with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2008;22(4):313–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Whetten K, Reif S, Whetten R, Murphy-McMillan LK. Trauma, mental health, distrust, and stigma among HIV-positive persons: implications for effective care. Psychosom Med. 2008;70(5):531–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Simbayi LC, Kalichman SC, Strebel A, Cloete A, Henda N, Mqeketo A. Disclosure of HIV status to sex partners and sexual risk behaviours among HIV-positive men and women, Cape Town, South Africa. Sexually Transm Infect. 2007;83(1):29–34.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Cahill SP, Rothbaum BO, Resick PA, Follette VM. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adults. In: Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, Cohen JA, editors. Effective treatments for PTSD. New York: The Guilford Press; 2009. p. 139–222.

  34. Lund C, Kleintjes S, Kakuma R, Flisher AJ. MHaPP Research Programme Consortium. Public sector mental health systems in South Africa: inter-provincial comparisons and policy implications. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2010;45(3):393–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the National Research Foundation in South Africa (Grant No. 93515 awarded to Dr. Kagee). We also thank the following persons who assisted with data collection for this research: Laing De Villiers, Mpho Sefatsa, Simona Flavio, Carla Nortje, Daniel Goldstone, Camilla Rankin, and Xanthe Hunt.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa

    Ashraf Kagee, Jason Bantjes & Wylene Saal

Authors
  1. Ashraf Kagee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jason Bantjes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Wylene Saal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ashraf Kagee.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. This article does not contain any studies with animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kagee, A., Bantjes, J. & Saal, W. Prevalence of Traumatic Events and Symptoms of PTSD Among South Africans Receiving an HIV Test. AIDS Behav 21, 3219–3227 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-017-1730-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-017-1730-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation