Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Citizen science contribution to national wolf population monitoring: what have we learned?

  • Original Article
  • Published:
European Journal of Wildlife Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Evidence-based management of large carnivores is a crucial step towards their effective conservation. However, monitoring of these populations is demanding and generally requires substantial fieldwork effort. Lately, citizen science has become an increasingly important part of wildlife monitoring, but can that endanger studied species? In this paper, we describe our experiences with recruiting and involving volunteers in annual howling surveys of grey wolf (Canis lupus) population in Slovenia and present the framework about the use of citizens for collecting data. Huge effort of participants in a 7-year-long monitoring at a national scale has yielded a total of 116 wolf vocal responses, including 53 confirmed litters. Annually, between 5 and 12 reproductive packs were detected and an increasing trend in wolf population throughout the study period was observed. Volunteer-based howling surveys proved to be a cost-effective method for detection of reproductive packs on a large spatial scale, offering an insight into wolf population trends across a longer time period and we provide some recommendations for organisation and coordination of surveys. We also discuss ethical issues raised from our experience in using citizen science for this purpose.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ausband DE, Skrivseth J, Mitchell SS (2011) An automated device for provoking and capturing wildlife calls. Wildl Soc Bull 35(4):498–503. https://doi.org/10.1002/wsb.80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartol M, Černe R, Hrovat M, Jelenčič M, Jonozovič M, Konec M, Kos I, Krofel M, Kuralt Ž, Luštrik R, Potočnik H, Skrbinšek T, Žele D (2016) Spremljanje varstvenega stanja volkov v Sloveniji v sezoni 2015/2016. Final Report, Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning, Ljubljana, 56p (in Slovenian with English summary) http://www.natura2000.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Volk_Koncno_porocilo_Spremljanje_vars tvenega_stanja_volkov-1del.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019. http://www.natura2000.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Volk_Koncno_porocilo_Spremljanje_varst venega_stanja_2del.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019

  • Bartol M, Černe R, Hrovat M, Jelenčič M, Jonozovič M, Kos I, Krofel M, Kuralt Ž, Luštrik R, Potočnik H, Skrbinšek T, Vengušt G, Žele D (2017) Spremljanje varstvenega stanja volkov v Sloveniji v sezoni 2016/2017. Final Report, Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning, Ljubljana, 42p (In Slovenian with English summary). http://www.natura2000.si/uploads/tx_library/MonitoringVolk_201617_koncno_porocilo1.pdf, http://www.natura2000.si/uploads/tx_library/MonitoringVolk_201617_koncno_porocilo2.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019

  • Bartol M, Černe R, Hrovat M, Jelenčič M, Jonozovič M, Kos I, Krofel M, Kuralt Ž, Luštrik R, Potočnik H, Skrbinšek T, Vengušt G, Žele D (2018) Spremljanje varstvenega stanja volkov v Sloveniji v letih 2017/2020. Partly Report, Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning, Ljubljana, 46p. ( In Slovenian with English summary). http://www.natura2000.si/uploads/tx_library/Spremljanje_varstvenega_stanja_volkov_v_Sloveniji_v_letih_2017-20_2._delno_final.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019

  • Blanco JC, Yolanda C (2012) Surveying wolves without snow: a critical review of the methods used in Spain. Hystrix. Ital J Mammal 23:35–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonney R, Cooper CB, Dickinson J, Kelling S, Phillips T, Rosenberg KV, Shirk J (2009) Citizen science: a developing tool for expanding science knowledge and scientific literacy. Bioscience 59:977–984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crête, M., and F. Messier. 1987. Evaluation of indices of gray wolf, Canis lupus, density in hardwood-conifer forests of southwestern Quebec. Can. Field-Nat. 10:147–152

  • Da Costa (2018) The indirect impacts of wind farms on terrestrial mammals: insights from the disturbance and exclusion effects on wolves (Canis lupus). In: Mascarenhas M et al. (eds.) Biodiversity and wind farms in Portugal. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60351-3

  • Dickinson JL, Shirk J, Bonter D, Bonney R, Crain RL, Martin J, Phillips T (2012) The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Front Ecol Environ 10:291–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farhadinia MS, Moll R, Montgomery R, Macdonald D (2018) Citizen science data facilitate monitoring of rare large carnivores in remote montane landscapes. Ecol Indic. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.06.064

  • Fuller TK, Sampson BA (1988) Evaluation of a simulated howling survey for wolves. J Widl Manag 52:60–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Gable TD, Windels SK, Bump JK (2018) Finding wolf homesites: improving the efficacy of howl surveys to study wolves. Peer J. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5629

  • Gazzola A, Avanzinelli E, Mauri L, Scandura M, Apollonio M (2002) Temporal changes of howling in south European wolf packs. Ital J Zool 69(2):157–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/11250000209356454

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington FH, Mech LD (1979) Wolf howling and its role in territory maintenance. Behaviour 68:207–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington FH, Mech LD (1982) An analysis of howling response parameters useful for wolf pack censusing. J Wildl Manag 46:686–693

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan RC, Ballard HL, Phillips TB (2012) Key issues and new approaches for evaluating citizen-science learning outcomes. Front Ecol Environ 10:307–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joslin PWB (1967) Movements and home sites of timber wolves in Algonquin Park. Am Zool 7:279–288 http://www.jstor.org/stable/3881432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krofel M, Giannatos G, Ćirović D, Stoyanov S, Newsome TM (2017) Golden jackal expansion in Europe: a case of mesopredator release triggered by continent-wide wolf persecution? Hystrix 28(1). https://doi.org/10.4404/hystrix-28.1-11819

  • Leblond M, Dussault C, St-Laurent MH (2017). Space use by gray wolves (Canis lupus) in response to simulated howling: a case study and a call for further investigation. Can. J. Zool. 95: 221–226. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2016-0191

  • Llaneza L, Ordiz A, Palacios V, Uzal-Fernandez A (2005) Monitoring wolf populations using howling points combined with sign survey transects. Wildl Biol Pract 2:108–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Llaneza L, Garcıa EJ, Lopez-Bao JV (2014) Intensity of territorial marking predicts wolf reproduction: implications for wolf monitoring. PLoS One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093015

  • Louvrier J, Duchamp C, Lauret V, Marboutin E, Cubaynes S, Choquet R, Miquel C (2018) Mapping and explaining wolf recolonization in France using dynamic occupancy models and opportunistic data. Ecography 41:647–660. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog.02874

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majić-Skrbinšek S (2014) Final Report LIFE08 NAT/SLO 000244 SloWolf. Conservation and surveillance of conservation status of wolf (Canis lupus) population in Slovenia. University of Ljubljana www.volkovi.si/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/slowolf_final_report.pdf.

  • Molinari-Jobin A, Kéry M, Marboutin E, Marucco F, Zimmermann F, Molinari P, Frick H (2017) Mapping range dynamics from opportunistic data: spatiotemporal modelling of the lynx distribution in the Alps over 21 years. Anim Conserv:1–13

  • Nowak S, Jędrzejewski W, Schmidt K, Theuerkauf J, Mysłajek RW, Jędrzejewska B (2006) Howling activity of free-ranging wolves (Canis lupus) in the Białowieża Primeval Forest and the Western Beskidy Mountains (Poland). J Ethol 25:231–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papin M, Aznara M, Germaina E, Guéroldb F, Pichenotc J (2019) Using acoustic indices to estimate wolf pack size. Ecol Indic 103:202–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.03.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Passilongo D (2013) Acoustic behaviour of two large terrestrial mammals in relation to resource maintenance and mating systems: wolf (Canis lupus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) as model species . Dissertation. University of Sassari

  • Passilongo D, Buccianti A, Dessi-Fulgheri F, Gazzola A, Zaccaroni M, Apollonio M (2010) The acoustic structure of wolf howls in some eastern tuscany (central italy) free ranging packs. Bioacoustics 19:159–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/09524622.2010.9753622

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Passilongo D, Mattioli L, Bassi E, Szabó L, Apollonio M (2015) Visualizing sound: counting wolves by using a spectral view of the chorus howling. Front Zool:12–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12983-015-0114-02015

  • Pimlott DH (1960) The use of tape-recorded wolf howls to locate timber wolves. Twenty-second Midwest Wildlife Congress, Toronto, p 15

    Google Scholar 

  • Pocock MJO, Chapman DS, Sheppard LJ & Roy HE (2014). Choosing and using citizen science: a guide to when and how to use citizen science to monitor biodiversity and the environment. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology. ISBN: 978–1–906698-50-8

  • Potočnik H, Krofel M, Skrbinšek T, Ražen N, Jelenčič M, Žagar A, Kos I (2010) Monitoring volkov z izzivanjem tuljenja. SloWolf Report (LIFE08 NAT/SLO/000244 SloWolf) (In Slovenian) http://www.volkovi.si/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/2010-potocnik-et-al.-howling-porociloslowolf.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019

  • Potočnik H, Krofel M, Skrbinšek T, Ražen N, Jelenčič M, Kljun F, Žele D, Vengušt G, Kos I (2014) Projektno poročilo za Akcijo C1 (LIFE08 NAT/SLO/000244 SloWolf): Spremljanje stanja populacije volka v Sloveniji (3). 1., 2. in 3. sezona – 2010/11, 2011/12 in 2012/13. Projekt LIFE+ SloWolf. http://www.volkovi.si/wpcontent/uploads/2014/10/porocilo_c1_koncno.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2019

  • Potočnik H, Boljte B, Flajšman K, Jelenčič M, Kavčič I, Kljun F, Konec M, Kuralt Ž, Levanič T, Majić Skrbinšek A, Pokorny B, Skrbinšek T, Stronen AV, Kos I (2018a). Prostorska razporeditev, številčnost, ocena populacijskih trendov in potencialno širjenje areala vrste zlati šakal (Canis aureus L.) v Sloveniji (V1–1626). Ciljni raziskovalni program ˝Zagotovimo.si hrano za jutri˝: Final Report. Ljubljana in Velenje. Biotechnical Faculty, Department for Biology; Slovenian Forest Inatitute; College of Environmental protection, 139 pp

  • Potočnik H, Kos I, Flajšman K, Pokorny B (2018b) Competition, coexistence or exclusion? Distribution of expanding Golden jackal in relation to distribution and density of two other Canid species, Grey wolf and Red fox. In: Slovenia V (ed) Modern aspects of sustainable management of game populations: book of abstracts. Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, p 16

    Google Scholar 

  • Potočnik H, Ražen N, Krofel M, Kuralt Ž, Flajšman K, Pokorny B, Kos I (2018c) Potential versus actual “habitat interference” between expanding golden jackals and wolves in Slovenia. Proceedings of the 2nd International Jackal Symposium, Marathon Bay, Attiki Province, Greece Hell. Zool. Arch., No. 9 Nov 2018. https://issuu.com/europeanwildernesssociety/docs/2ijs_book_editor_copy_final.

  • Potočnik H, Pokorny B, Flajšman K, Kos I (2019) Evrazijski šakal. (Zlatorogova knjižnica, 42), [Golden jackal; In Slovenian]. Lovska zveza Slovenije, Ljubljana, p 250

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapaić Ž (1989) Staništa vuka u Bosni i Hercegovini i rezultati reprodukcije. Lovački list April-Maj 1989

  • Roy HE, Pocock MJO, Preston CD, Roy DB, Savage J, Tweddle JC, Robinson LD (2012) Understanding citizen science & environmental monitoring. Final report on behalf of UK-EOF. Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire

    Google Scholar 

  • Skrbinšek Majić Aleksandra et al. (2014) Final report life08 nat/slo/244 slowolf. university of ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia

  • Stansbury CR, Ausband DE, Zager P (2014) A long-term population monitoring approach for a wide-ranging carnivore: noninvasive genetic sampling of gray wolf rendezvous sites in Idaho, USA. J Wildl Manag 78:1040–1049. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.736

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank volunteers of Dinaricum Society and hunters from special purpose hunting grounds and everyone else that contributed to the monitoring of wolves in Slovenia. We are indebted for their contribution to the field. We would like to thank anonymous reviewers for their comments and improvements of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by LIFE08 NAT/SLO/000244 SloWolf, LIFE WolfAlps: LIFE12 NAT/IT/000807 and the Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning. M.K. was supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (grant no. P4-0059).

Author information

Author notes

  1. N. Ražen, Ž. Kuralt and U. Fležar contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

    N. Ražen, Ž. Kuralt, I. Kos, M. Krofel, A. Majić Skrbinšek & H. Potočnik

  2. Dinaricum Society, Večna pot 111, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

    N. Ražen, Ž. Kuralt, U. Fležar, M. Krofel & R. Luštrik

  3. Slovenia Forest Service, Večna pot 2, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia

    U. Fležar, M. Bartol & R. Černe

Authors
  1. N. Ražen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ž. Kuralt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. U. Fležar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Bartol
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. R. Černe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. I. Kos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. M. Krofel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. R. Luštrik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. A. Majić Skrbinšek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. H. Potočnik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to N. Ražen.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interests

The authors declare that they have no financial or other conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOC 2811 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ražen, N., Kuralt, Ž., Fležar, U. et al. Citizen science contribution to national wolf population monitoring: what have we learned?. Eur J Wildl Res 66, 46 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-020-01383-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-020-01383-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation